Psychology unit 7: Cognition, Language, and Intelligence

Cognition

The mental activity associated with obtaining, converting, and using knowledge

Thinking

Mental activity associated with coming to a decision, reaching a solution or forming a belief

Concepts

Mental representations of categories of objects, situations, and ideas that belong together based on their central features or characteristics

Concept Hierarchy

Superordinate: The most general concept

Midlevel: The middle level concept

Subordinate: The most specific concept

Natural Concepts

The mental representations of categories developed through everyday experiences

Formal Concepts

The mental representations of categories that are created through rigid and logical rules, or features.

Prototype

The ideal or most representative example of natural concept; helps us categorize or identify specific members of a concept

Problem Solving

The variety of approaches that can be used to achieve a goal

Trial and Error

An approach to problem solving that involves finding a solution through a series of attempts and eliminating those that do not work

Algorithm

An approach to problem solving using a formula or set of rules that, if followed, ensures a solution

Heuristics

Problem-solving shortcuts that incorporate a rule of thumb, guideline, or strategy

Insight

An understanding or solution that occurs in a sudden stroke of clarity (the aha! moment)

Functional fixedness

A barrier to problem solving that occurs when familiar objects can only be imagined to function in their usual way

Decision Making

The cognitive process of choosing from alternatives that might be used to reach a goal

Daniel Kahneman and Amos Tversky

Among the first to systematically research the errors caused by heuristics

Availability Heuristic

A decision-making strategy that predicts the likelihood of something happening based on how easily a similar type of event from the past can be recalled

Representativeness Heuristic

A decision-making strategy that evaluates the degree to which the primary characteristics of a person or situation are similar to our prototypes of that kind of person or situation

Confirmation Bias

The tendency to look for evidence that upholds our beliefs and to overlook evidence that runs counter to them

Hindsight Bias

The mistaken belief that an outcome could have been predicted easily; the “I knew it all along” feeling

The Framing Effect

Demonstrates how how the presentation or context of a problem can influence our decision making, often in ways beyond our awareness

Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy (CTE)

A neurodegenerative disease caused by repeated head trauma

Harry Carson

Football player who went through some sports related head injuries and feels he suffers from CTE

Language

A system for using symbols to think and communicate

Phonemes

The basic building blocks of spoken language

Morphemes

The fundamental units that bring meaning to language

Grammar

The rules associated with word and sentence structure

Syntax

The collection of rules concerning where to place words or phrases

Semantics

The rules used to bring meaning to words and sentences

Pragmatics

The social rules that help to organize language

Displacement

The ability to talk and think about things that are not present at the moment

Benjamin Lee Whorf

Developed Linguistic relativity hypothesis (the language that people speak has an impact on their thinking and perception)

Intelligence

Innate ability to solve problems, adapt to the environment, and learn from experiences

Charles Spearman’s Theory

General Intelligence (g-factor): A singular underlying aptitude or intellectual ability that drives capabilities in many areas, including verbal, spatial, and reasoning competencies

Howard Gardener’s Theory

Multiple Intelligence: There are 8 types of intelligences, each associated with certain strengths and capabilities

Robert Sternberg’s Theory

Triarchic theory of intelligence: Theory suggesting that humans have varying degrees of analytical, creative, and practical abilities

Aptitude

An individuals potential for learning

Achievement

Acquired knowledge, or what has been learned

Mental Age (MA)

A score representing the mental abilities of an individual in relation to others of a similar chronological age

Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon

Created the systematic assessment of intelligence

Intelligence Quotient (IQ)

A score from an intelligence assessment; originally based on mental age divided by chronological age, multiplied by 100

Lewis Terman

Adapted Binet’s tests for the use in the US which reported intelligence as a calculated IQ score

David Wechsler

Created that adult intelligence scale (WAIS)

Validity

The degree to which an assessment measures what it intends to measure

Reliability

The ability of an assessment to provide consistent, reproducible results

Standardization

Occurs when test developers administer a test to a large sample and then publish the average scores for specified groups

Normal Curve

Depicts the frequency of values of a variable along a continuum; bell-shaped symmetrical distribution, with the highest point reflecting the average score

Culture-Fair Intelligence Tests

Assessments designed to minimize cultural bias

Gifted

Highly intelligent; defined as having an IQ score of 130 or above

Emotional Intelligence

The capacity to perceive, understand, and use emotions to adapt to social situations

Heritability

The degree to which hereditary factors (genes) are responsible for a particular characteristic observed within a population

Creativity

In problem solving, the ability to construct valuable results in innovative ways; the ability to generate original ideas

Divergent Thinking

The ability to devise many solutions to a problem; a component of creativity

Convergent Thinking

A conventional approach to problem solving that focuses on finding a single best solution to a problem by using previous experience and knowledge