APUSH Ultimate Review

Who were the Pueblo people?

• Southwest (Utah)

• Settled farmers who cultivated maize

• Advanced irrigation systems

• Cliff dwellings

Who were the Ute people?

• Great Basins/Plains

• Nomadic, hunter-gatherers (buffalos)

• Organized themselves into small egalitarian kinship bands

Who were the Chumash and the Chinook people?

• Pacific coast

• Perm. settlements due to abundance of fish/resources and diversity of plant life

• Participated in regional trade networks up and down coast

Who were the Iroquois people?

• Northeast

• Farmers

• Lived communally in longhouses that were constructed from the abundant timber available in that area

Who were the Cahokia people?

• Mississippi River Valley

• Farmers due to rich soil in that region

• Participated in trade up and down main waterways

• Decentralized government led by powerful chieftains

What was the context of the Old World that prompted European exploration in the late 15th century?

• Undergoing political unification, developing more stronger, centralized states under monarchs

• As a result, there was a growing wealthy upper class that desired luxury goods from Asia, but Muslims controlled many of the land-based routes

• This led to them seek out sea-based routes for trade

What did Portugal do in exploration? What helped facilitate it?

• Trading post empire in Africa/India

• Made possible by advancements in maritime technology and shipbuilding (astronomical charts, astrolabe, shipbuilding, Latin sail)

What were motives of Spanish exploration and colonialism (fueled by the Reconquista)?

• Increased desire to spread Catholic Christianity

• Find new sources of wealth in Asian markets

• Spread of religion

How did Columbus’s landing in San Salvador / Bahamas affect European nations?

• Created competition among European nations to explore those lands

What was transferred from the Americas to Europe?

Potatoes, tomatos, maize, turkeys, gold, and silver

What was transferred from Europe to the Americas?

• Cattle, pigs, horses, enslaved people, and diseases (ex. smallpox)

How did the influx of wealth from the Americas impact Europe’s economy?

• Shift from feudalism (peasants working on land in exchange for protection) to capitalism (private ownership and free exchange)

What is a joint-stock company?

• Funded exploration, different from state-sponsored funding of Spain

• Limited liability organization in which investors put in money to fund a venture

What was the Encomienda System? What problems did the Spanish have with it?

• A colonial labor system in which the Spanish enslaved native people to farm and mine in the Americas

• The Spanish had difficulty keeping the Natives subservient, + Natives kept dying from disease

What did the Europeans do to “fix” the problem?

• Imported African slaves to work on plantations —> chattel-based slavery

• Unfamiliar with the geography and less likely to run away

• + More immunity to European diseases

What was the Casta System?

• A system employed by the Spanish categorizing people based on their racial ancestry

In what way was the relationship between Natives and English colonization good?

• Natives taught the English how to hunt in the forest and cultivate maize

• Natives adopted iron tools and weapons introduced by the English

What did Juan de Sepulveda argue?

Native Americans were less than human and actually benefited from the harsh labor conditions

What did Las Casas argue?

• Saw the Natives as respectable people

• Persuaded the king to pass laws ending the slavery of the Natives (those laws were repealed anyways)

What was the Pueblo Revolt (1680)?

• Successful uprising by Native Americans against Spanish colonizers

• Forced the Spanish out for 12 years and demonstrated that Native people could challenge European power

How did Europeans justify their exploitation of the Africans?

• Utilized the Bible —→ Africans were destined to be slaves from the beginning

How did French colonial policies differ from the Spanish/English colonial policies?

• French policies focused primarily on fish/fur trade around North America

• Cultivated positive/transactional marriages w/ Natives + trade relations

How did the French and Ojibwe Indians interact?

• Indians benefited the French by providing beaver skin

• French benefited the Indians by providing cookware and manufactured cloth

What were the Dutch’s goals for colonizing?

• Economically driven (fur-trade), little interest in converting the indigenous to Christianity

What did the Dutch establish in 1624?

• New Amsterdam: trading post bustling with productivity

Why did British start colonizing?

• Economic opportunities (upper classes were suffering due to the rapidly changing economy and inflation, while the lower classes were suffering due to poverty and the Enclosure Movement (which privatized communal land))

• Religious freedom

• Improved living conditions

What was going on in the Chesapeake (Virginia) region?

• Jamestown (1607): first permanent colonial settlement in North America; financed by joint-stock company

• Disease and famine initially killed many settlers

• But in 1612, tobacco cultivation took root, which was done by indentured servitude

What was Bacon’s Rebellion (1676)?

• As White people continued to encroach on the Natives’ land, the Natives began to retaliate by raiding colonial farms

• These settlers appealed to their governor, William Berkley, who refused to send troops

• Nathanial Bacon led a rebellion with indentured servants and poor farmers against the Indians and plantations owned by Berkley

• This led to indentured servitude slowly dissipating as the main source of labor in favor of African slavery

Who settled in the New England colonies?

Pilgrims and puritans; family economies based on agriculture and commerce

In the Caribbean, what did falling tobacco prices lead to?

• Sugarcane cultivation, as well as increased demand for African slaves

• Laws passed that defined African slaves as property (chattel)

What was going on in the Middle Colonies (ex. Pennsylvania)?

• Export economy (cereal crops)

• Inequality between classes (elite + lower labor class)

• William Penn = Quaker = religious tolerance

What was the Mayflower Compact (1620)?

• Plymouth, Massachusetts

• Signed by pilgrims for self-governance

What was the House of Burgesses (Virginia)?

• Representative assembly that could make laws and pass taxes

What was the Triangular Trade?

System of transatlantic trade that connected Europe, Africa, and the Americas

• Europe to Africa: goods like guns, cloth, and alcohol

• Africa (Middle Passage) to the Americas: enslaved people

• Americas to Europe: raw materials like sugar, tobacco, and cotton

What is mercantilism?

States competing for a supposed finite wealth in the world (exports > imports)

The British initially managed their trade in their empire via the Navigation Acts. What were they, and what was their effect?

• Laws that required for merchants to engage in trade with English entities, and certain valuable trade items could only go through British ports, where they could be taxed

• This generated vast wealth for the elites and turned sea ports into bustling centers of commerce and trade

Explain the transition from indentured servitude to African-based chattel slavery.

• Indentured servitude was becoming inefficient and problematic, as they could gain their freedom in 7 years

• Cash crops were creating an increased demand for more efficient labor, like slaves

• The slave trade was also convenient and inexpensive at that time

Slaves rebelled in their own ways. What is the difference between covert and overt rebellion?

Covert: subversive and secret acts of resistance, like working more slowly, breaking tools, and stealing clothing and food

Overt: more direct and open defiance of authority, like fighting back and running away

What is an example of an overt rebellion by the slaves?

• Stono Rebellion (1739): largest slave revolt in the British colonies

• A literate enslaved man named Jemmy led a large group of enslaved people in an armed insurrection against white colonists, killing several before militia stopped them

• Demonstrated the intense desire for freedom among enslaved Africans, illustrating their willingness to revolt against oppressive systems

How did Enlightenment thinking from Europe influence political thought in the British North American colonies? What helped spread these ideas?

• Enlightenment thinking influenced colonists to question British authors and push for self-government (ex. natural rights and social contract)

• A transatlantic print culture helped circulate these ideas

What was the Great Awakening (early 1700s) (Protestant evangelism)?

• Large scale return to Christian faith within British American colonies

• Unified colonies and increased diversity among religions by emphasizing more personal relationships with God and emotional expression (this is the New Light thinking; Old Light was against the Great Awakening)

What caused the French and Indian War (1754 - 1763)?

• British colonists began to settle beyond Appalachian Mountains in the Ohio River Valley

• French were already in the Ohio River Valley, building forts in that region (ex. Fort Duquesne)

• British colonists built their own fort, Fort Necessity

• Conflict between the two = war, and Native Americans had to realign themselves with alliances

What was the Albany Plan of Union (1754)?

• Proposed by Benjamin Franklin, it was a plan for centralized colonial unity during the French and Indian War for mutual defense against threats

• It was never adopted, but it represented an early attempt at intercolonial cooperation and foreshadowed later efforts towards American unity

What were the provisions of the Treaty of Paris (1763)?

• Ended Seven Years’ War

• France ceded to Britain all its entire North American empire (including all French territory in Canada and east of Mississippi River)

• France ceded to Spain all territory west of Mississippi River

What was Pontiac’s Rebellion (1763)?

• Colonists kept on pushing westwards into the Ohio River Valley

• Ottawa chief named Pontiac led attacks on British forts and settlements, but largely failed due to lack of unified support among tribes and British military pressure

What was the Proclamation of 1763?

• In response to Pontiac’s Rebellion

• Forbid colonists from taking land west of Appalachian Mountains to prevent hostilities, which frustrated colonists

What was the March of the Paxton Boys (1764)?

• Scots-Irish men living in the Appalachian hills that wanted protection from Indian attacks

• They protested the lenient ways that the Quakers treated the Indians

The British enforcement of economic policies post Seven Years’ War undermined the long-held policy of salutary neglect in the American colonies. What was salutary neglect?

• A period where the Crown and Parliament relied enforcement of trade laws in its American colonies, giving the colonies a greater degree of autonomy

What was virtual representation, and how did the British use it to justify their control of the colonies?

It was the British idea that Parliament represented the entire British empire, including the colonies, even though colonists didn’t directly elect members to Parliament

What was the Sugar Act (1764)?

• Tax on sugar and molasses to repay debt of Seven Years’ War

• Colonists = angry

What was the Stamp Act (1765)?

• Tax on printed items (newspaper, legal docs)

• Major protests

What was the Stamp Act Congress (1765)?

• Delegates from nine colonies listed grievances, particularly on taxation without representation

• First unified colonial response to British policies

Who were the Sons/Daughters of Liberty?

• Sons of Liberty (1765): emerged to protest the Stamp Act, protesting and boycotting to influence public opinion against British rule

• Daughters of Liberty (1766): organized boycotts of British goods and produced homemade items to reduce dependence on Britain

What was the Declaratory Act (1766)?

• Passed on the same day the Stamp Act was repealed

• Asserted that Parliament had the power to legislate for the American colonies “in all cases whatsoever”

What were the Townshend Acts (1767)?

Taxed imports to American colonies (made it more expensive for colonists)

What was the Boston Massacre (1770)?

• British soldiers stationed in Boston fired on a crowd of colonists, killing five and wounding others

• Heightened tensions between the colonists and the British, becoming a symbol of British oppression and sparking outrage and increased calls for independence

What was the Gaspee Affair (1772)?

• A British ship that enforced the unfair British trade regulations was looted and burned down by American patriots

What was the Tea Act (1773)?

• Granted a monopoly on selling tea for the British East India Company

• This means that only the British East India Company was allowed to sell tea directly American colonies, making no one else able to compete. This made the colonists angry because it hurt local merchants and felt like unfair control.

What was the Boston Tea Party (1773)?

• In response to the Tea Act, the Sons of Liberty disguised themselves as Indians and threw tea overboard a British ship

What were the Coercive/Intolerable Acts (1774)?

• Series of laws passed to punish the Massachusetts Bay colony after the Boston Tea Party and assert British authority

• Included the Boston Port Act (closed Boston harbor until the colonists paid for the destroyed tea), Massachusetts Government Act (replaced the elected Massachusetts legislature with a royally appointed one), Administration of Justice Act (allowed British officials accused of crimes to be tried in Britain or another colony), and Quartering Act

What was the First Continental Congress (1774)?

• Coordinated, unified response against Intolerable Acts, issuing the Declaration of Colonial Rights and Grievances

• Passed several resolutions including nonimportation, nonexportation, and non-consumption agreements in an attempt to cut off all trade with Britain

How was colonial society divided during the Revolutionary War?

Patriots: supported independence

Loyalists: opposed independence

Neutral: rural populations away from fighting

What was Lexington and Concord (1775)?

• Battle considered the beginning of the American Revolutionary War (“shot heard round the world”)

What was the Second Continental Congress (1775)?

Meeting of colonial delegates in Philadelphia

Authorized the Continental Army and appointed George Washington as its commander

What was the Declaration of Independence (1776)?

• Written by Thomas Jefferson and approved by the Continental Congress

• Incorporated Enlightenment thought to justify American independence (ex. natural rights, consent of the governed, British crimes and mistreatment)

How did the Battle of Saratoga change the outcome of the war (1778)?

• American forces defeated the superior British army, which increased patriot morale

• Because of this victory, France entered the war to ally with the American revolutionaries

What happened at the Battle of Yorktown (1781)?

• Last major battle of the American Revolution

• Continental Army + French armies made British troops surrender

What was the Treaty of Paris (1783)?

• Ended the American Revolution

• Recognized the US as a sovereign nation + doubled the size of the new nation and established the western boundary at the Mississippi River

What were the Articles of Confederation (written 1777, ratified 1781)?

• First American Constitution

• Established weak central gov with confederation of states

• Lacked the ability to regulate commerce or collect taxes

• Lacked military power

What was the Northwest Ordinance (1787)?

Provision under the Articles of Confederation that…

• Set up how new rerrirotires could become states (60,000 people required)

• Banned slavery in the Northwest Territory

What was Shay’s Rebellion and its effect (1786)?

• Armed uprising by poor farmers in Massachusetts, led by Daniel Shays

• The state government heavily taxed its citizens, especially farmers, to pay off war debt. These taxes had to be paid in hard currency, which many poor farmers didn’t have

• The rebellion showed that the Articles of Confederation/federal government were too weak to handle unrest, leading for a greater push for a stronger central government

What was the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia (1787)?

• Delegates from 12 states (excluding Rhode Island) convened to address the problems of the weak central government

What was the Virginia Plan (part of Constitutional Convention)?

What was the New Jersey Plan (part of Constitutional Convention)?

What was the Great Compromise (part of the Constitutional Convention)?

What was the Three-Fifths Compromise (part of the Constitutional Convention)?

Explain the 3 branches of government established during the Constitutional Convention.

Who were the Federalists? What did they believe in?

• Supporters of the Constitution who advocated for a stronger national government (delegated powers vs reserved powers) and the need for a checks and balances to prevent tyranny

• Alexander Hamilton, John Jay, James Madison

Who were the Anti-federalists? What did they believe in?

• Opposed the new Constitution and saw that it favored the creation of a powerful, aristocratic ruling class, wanted a Bill of Rights (which eventually was added in 1791)

• Patrick Henry and George Mason

What was the Judiciary Act (1789)?

• Establishes the federal court system in the United States

What was the French Revolution (1789)?

• Period of widespread social and political upheaval in France, primarily driven by Enlightenment ideals and dissatisfaction with the existing monarchy and feudal system

• US would adopt policy of neutrality to avoid European conflicts

What was the “elastic-cause”?

• Allowed Congress to enact laws deemed necessary and proper

• Hamilton used this as justification to create a National Bank (1791)