unit 3

learning

learning

relatively permanent change in behavior due to an experience

behaviorism

perspective where learning is studied

neutral stimulus (NS)

a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning

unconditioned response (UR)

an unlearned, naturally occurring response to an unconditioned stimulus

conditioned response (CR)

a learned response to a previously neutral stimulus

conditioned stimulus (CS)

an originally neutral stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response

associative learning

connection between 2 events that happen closely in time

ex. thunder and lightning

classical conditioning

a type of learning in which we link two or more stimuli; as a result, to illustrate with **pavlov’s** classic experiment, the first stimulus comes to elicit behavior in anticipation of the second stimulus

operant conditioning

learn to associate a response and its consequence

conditioned

had to be learned

unconditioned

innate

stimulus

object or event in environment

acquisition

the initial stage - when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus beings triggering the conditioned response

extinction

diminishing of the CR after repeatedly presenting the CS alone

spontaneous recovery

after extincting and a rest period with no trials, you get the reappearance of the CR with the CS alone

generalization

weaker response to a similar stimuli

discrimination

response only to the stimulus you’re trained on

shaping

reinforcers that gradually guide actions toward the desired behavior

cognitive learning

the acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching others, or through language

reinforcement

increase frequency of a behavior

positive / negative

adding / taking away

primary

innately important

ex. food

secondary

learn to appreciate

ex. money

continuous

a response is always reinforced

partial

only sometimes is the response reinforced

fixed interval

same amount of time between successive responses

variable interval

unpredictable amount of time between responses

fixed ratio

same number of responses between successive reinforcements

variable ratio

unpredictable number of responses

punishment

decrease frequency of a behavior

positive reinforcement

something is *added* to *increase* the likelihood of a behavior

negative reinforcement

something is *removed* to *increase* the likelihood of a behavior

positive punishment

something is *added* to *decrease* the likelihood of a behavior

negative punishment

something is *removed* to *decrease* the likelihood of a behavior

observational learning

Bandura, learning things though imitations

memory

our ability to store and retrieve information that has been learned

information processing model

breaks memory down

mind/computer analogy

encoding → storing → retrieving

3 step model

atkinson & shiffrin


1. sensory memory
2. short term memory (working memory)
3. long term memory

encoding

how we get information in

automatic processing

space (location, spatial), time, frequency (habits)

effortful processing

conscious, controlled

rehearsal

repeating the information over and over

* time : more time the better

spacing effect / distributed practice

how rehearsal over time is more effective than doing it all at once

testing effect

testing / quizzing improves memory

serial position

remembering the 1st and last parts of a list

chunking

separate information into meaningful unites (7 +/- 2)

mnemonics

memory aid

hierarchies

general topics broken down into increasingly specific details

storage

storing information in your brain

sensory memory

vision & hearing

iconic memory

momentary visual memory (1/20 of a second)

echoic memory

momentary auditory memory (3-4 seconds)

short term memory

working memory, 30 sec

long term memory

unlimited for duration

neurotransmitters, hormones

impact long term memories, highly emotional situations = more detailed memories

explicit memory

declarative; consciously know that you know

semantic memory

facts, dates, names, faces

episodic memory

memory tied to a personal experience

implicit memory

the ability to perform things skillfully without knowing how you learned it

cerebellum, basal ganglia

procedural memory

motor & cognitive skills that we repeat over and over

retrieval

getting information out of your memory

recall

on the spot generation of information

recognition

identify the correct information (multiple choice tests)

relearning

knew information before, forgot it, learned it a second time *faster*

priming

identifying an associated or connected idea

context

remembering the context

* state dependent (physical and mental ex. drunk/sober)
* mood congruent (emotional)

retrieval failure

information is there, but you can’t access it. but there is a probability of retrieving it

interference

failure because 2 similar things are stored together, and one is blocking the other

proactive

old → new; something already learned is blocking new

retroactive

new → old; new information interferes when retrieving old

motivated forgetting *not accurate*

Freud; repress or forget painful memories

memory construction

reconsolidating

forming concepts

forming categories

prototype

best example of a group

trial and error

randomly

insight

sudden flash of inspiration

algorithm

step by step systematic approach

→ guaranteed to eventually find the right answer

heuristic

cognitive short cut

confirmation bias

natural tendency to look for information and examples that support our ideas

fixation

can’t stop looking at a problem in a narrow way

functional fixedness

fixated on the function of an object and the inability to apply it in a new creative way

availability heuristic

base judgements of frequency on how available the information in our brains is

representativeness heuristic

base our judgements of likelihood off of how well they match our prototype

overconfidence

overestimate the accuracy of current knowledge

belief perseverance

tendency to cling to our beliefs even in the face of contradictory evidence

framing

give the same information in different ways

intuition

fast, automatic, unreasoned feelings or thoughts

creativity

ability to produce a new and valuable idea

expertise

basic preparedness, knowledge base

imaginative thinking

recognizing different patterns

venturesome personality

risk taker, go against the norm

intrinsic motivation

challenged and passionate

creative environment

people motivating and challenging you

language

spoken, written, or gestured way that we communicate meaning

receptive language

ability to listen or see and understand

productive language

produce words or gestures

stages in acquisition

1. babbling
2. 1 word
3. 2 word
4. sentences & grammar

1. babbling

4 months, pair consonants and vowels

culture will shape by 10 mo.

2. 1 word stage; holophrase

1 year; one word captures an entire thought