BIOL practical

Graduated Pipet

used to measure 1.0ml to 25.0ml volumes of liquids precisely

Pipettor

suction device used with graduated pipet to transfer liquid

Graduated Cylinder

used to precisely measure 5.0ml to 1000.0ml volumes of liquids

beaker

used to measure approximate volumes (+/-5%) of liquids. Generally used to measure 20.0ml to 1000.0 ml volumes

Conical Flasks

Generally used to store or measure approximate volumes of liquids (+/-5%)

Transfer Pipet

used to transfer small (approximately 1.0ml or less) volumes of liquids. Typically used to measure approximate drops of liquid

Dropper Bottle

generally used to store small quantities of liquids and to dispense approximate small amounts such as a dropper full or X-number of drops; dark bottles can be used to store light sensitive liquids

Bead Bath

used to heat or boil solutions

Tongs and test tube holder

used to hold laboratory container that may be hot to the touch

Test tube

glass tubes used to carry out reactions in a contained environment. they do NOT fit in Spec20

Cuvette

small containers used to hold solutions to be measured using the spectrophotometer they are SMALLER than test tubes

Spectrophotometer

Equipment used to measure the absorbance/O.D. of a particular solution

Scientific Method

foundation of all universal experiments and designed to eliminate personal, social, cultural, religious, racial, sexual, and other biases of a scientist and provide a standard for exploring accurate and reproducible explanation of natural phenomenon

Scientific Method DO

a way to ask and answer specific questions by making observations and doing experiments

Scientific Method HOW

step by step process

Steps to scientific method

1. observation

2. background

3. hypothesis

4. experiment

5. results

6. discussion

7. conclusion

8. communicate

Scientific method step 1

observe and ask questions about the underlying question

Scientific method step 2

do background research to found out what is already known about it

Scientific method step 3

if there is a gap in information and you are still interested make an educated guess about the process

Scientific method step 4

list of materials, method, control groups

Scientific method step 5

data obtained from experiment represented in tables or graphs with a caption

Scientific Method step 6 and 7

results are explained and conclusions are drawn

Scientific Method step 8

once you have conclusive findings you want to share it with the world in a publication in an authentic journal

First microscope

long tube

Dissection/Simple Microscope

single objective lens, has light microscope

Compound Microscope

has several objective lenses and provides higher magnification than dissection scopes, is a light microscope

Electron Microscope

observing extremely minute structures like viruses and cell details, electrons used to create the image

Microscope parts

Magnification

ability to enlarge an image times life size or X

Resolving power

ability to clearly separate two objects close together

Total Magnification Power

combined magnification of the ocular lens and objective lens (objective lens is 10x)

Prokaryotes

they have genetic material but no true nucleus

1. no nucleus

2. smaller in size

3. no membrane bound cell-organelles

4. genetic material is circular

Eukaryotes

membrane-bound genetic material (true nucleus) and other membrane bound organelles

1. nucleus present

2. bigger in size

3. have membrane bound cell-organelles

4. genetic material is linear

Both cells

contain genetic material, are filled with cytosol/cytoplasm, and surrounded by plasma membrane, contain ribosomes

common cell organelles between animal and plant cells

1. nucleus

2. mitochondria

3. golgi apparatus

4. endoplasmic recticulum

5. vacuoles

plant cell specific organelles

1. chloroplast

2. central vacuole

3. cell wall

Hierarchy of life

atoms, molecules, macromolecules, cells

Major components of most organic molecules

carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen

Formation of polymers

polymers are made up of monomers with a carbon backbone, monomers are linked together by removing water (dehydration reaction) to produce polymers

Macromolecules

1. carbohydrates

2. proteins

3. lipids

4. nucleic acids

Carbohydrates

Building blocks: monosaccharides and disaccharides | complex: amylose and amylopectin

ex: glucose and sucrose

linked by: glycosidic bonds

functional group: carbonyl

Redox reaction

oxidation is a loss of hydrogen

reduction is a gain of hydrogen

Proteins

Building blocks: amino acids

linked by: peptide bonds

functional group: amino and carboxyl

made up of: polypeptides

detection of carbohydrates

simple carbs: benedict’s test

positive: orange-red (needs to be heated)

complex carbs: iodine test

positive: bluish black-black

detection of proteins

biuret test

positive: violet

Lipids

building blocks: fatty acids and glycerol

linked by: ester linkage

functional group: carboxyl and hydroxyl

detection of fats

hydrophobic test

positive: two layers

Nucleotides

monomers of DNA

Membrane structure

Fluid mosaic model: describes cell membrane as a mosaic of several types of molecules that are constantly moving

Phospholipid bilayer

hydrophilic heads and hydrophobic tails

components of bio membranes: integral (intrinsic) proteins

channel proteins

components of bio membranes: peripheral (extrinsic) proteins

primarily receptors

components of bio membranes: cholesterol

maintains structure and fluidity

components of bio membranes: surface sugars (glycoproteins or glycolipids)

cell to cell recognition

Membrane functions

1. serve as cell barriers

2. helps to compartmentalize the cell for proper organelle function

3. semi-permeable membranes allow regulated movement of molecules

Passive transport

movement of molecules from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration (along the concentration gradient, natural movement)

examples of passive transport

diffusion, osmosis, facilitated diffusion

active transport

movement of molecules from an area of lower concentration to higher concentration (against the concentration gradient, low to high) with the expense of energy

Diffusion

the movement or transport of molecules along the concentration gradient

Facilitated Diffusion

The movement or transport of molecules along the concentration gradient with the help of a protein carrier/channel

osmosis

the movement or transport of water along the concentration gradient across a semipermeable membrane

Tonicity

the concentration of a solution as compared to another solution

Tonicity on an animal cell

1. hypotonic: lysed H2O in

2. isotonic: normal H2O in and out

3. hypertonic: shriveled H2O out

Tonicity on a plant cell

1. hypotonic: turgid (normal) H2O in

2. isotonic: flaccid H2O in and out

3. hypertonic: plasmolyzed H2O out

Plant cell in hypertonic solution

plasmolysis

Plasmolysis definition

the shrinking of the cell membrane away from the cell walls because of loss of water to the outside hypertonic solution

Percent solutions

the amount (grams) or of chemical or compound (solute) per 100ml of a solution (solvent)

Solute

what is being dissolved

Solvent

the dissolver

Active Transport

transport of a solution against the concentration gradient by spending energy

What is metabolism

all chemical reactions happening in a cell

What is anabolism

Synthesis of bigger molecules from smaller molecules

What is catabolism

Breakdown of larger molecules into smaller molecules to liberate energy

What is cellular respiration

it is a catabolic process by which carbohydrates are broken down and the energy released is used to make ATP

What is anaerobic respiration (fermentation)

the breakdown of glucose

no oxygen required

low atp yield

quick energy yield

starts and finishes in the cytoplasm

occurs in bacteria, muscle, yeast cells

What is aerobic cellular respiration

breakdown of glucose

oxygen required

high atp yield

slow energy yield

starts in cytoplasm and finishes in mitochondria

occurs in animal and plant cells

Cellular Respiration formula

C6H12 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O + ATP

glucose + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water + energy

Aqueous environment formula

CO2 + H2O → H2CO3

carbon dioxide + water → carbonic acid

Aerobic respiration steps

1. glycolysis

2. citric acid cycle

3. oxidative phosphorylation

What happens during glycolysis

glucose → 2 pyruvate

net gain of 2 ATP and NADH

Transitional steps of pyruvate

pyruvate → Acetyl CoA

yields 1 NADH and 1 CO2

using transport protein from cytosol to mitochrondrion

structure of mitochondria

Citric acid cycle

electrons carry into mitochondria Acetyl CoA starts krebs cycle and makes carbon dioxide and ATP

Oxidative phosphorylation

electron transport chain and chemiosmosis

makes 32 ATP

occurs in inner membrane + matrix

fermentation

2 glucose → 2 pyruvate 2 acetaldehyde → 2 ethanol

anaerobic respiration in anaerobic bacteria

glucose → 2 pyruvate → 2 lactate

What is Bromothymol Blue

a pH indicator that changes color based on a solution's acidity

yellow = acidic

blue = basic

green = neutral

photosynthesis formula

CO2 + H2O — sunlight → C6H12O6 + O2

What are autotrophs

organisms that made their own energy

What are heterotrophs

organisms that cannot make its own food, dependent on producers

BUT both are dependent on the sun, however not directly for heterotrophs

Chloroplast structure

Light reaction

1. depends on light

2. transforms light to ATP and NADPH

occurs in granum

Dark reaction/calvin cycle

3. independent of light

4. uses ATP and NADPH to make glucose

Dark reaction steps

1. carbon fixation

2. reduction

3. regeneration

What is chromatography

technique used for separation of molecules

molecules will be separated based on their size, shape, molecular weight, affinity to the solvent, affinity to the solid phase, affinity to the solvent to the solid phase

What is spectrophotometry

the wavelengths a substance absorbs is its absorption spectrum

Cell cycle

1. mitotic phase: pro,meta,ana,telaphase

2. first growth phase: growth and normal metabolic roles

3. synthesis phase: dna replication

4. second growth phase: growth and preparation for mitosis

Which parts of the cell cycle is interphase?

G1, S, G2

Chromosome Structure