BIO 111: Unit 1 Exam

taxonomy

the science of classifying/naming organisms

genus 1

1st part of an organism’s name - always capital ex: Homo

species 1

2nd part of an organism’s name and are made of individuals that can breed with one another - always lower case ex: sapiens

monophyletic

* consists of the ancestor and all its descendants


* ancestor is always at the bottom of the tree
* also called a clade

paraphyletic

consists of an ancestor and some, but not all, of the descendants

polyphyletic

includes numerous organisms but not the common ancestor

8 levels of taxonomy

1. domain
2. kingdom
3. phylum
4. class
5. order
6. family
7. genus
8. species

domain

the broadcast category with the most members

domain archea

* bacteria, prokaryotic cells
* live in harsh environments
* high salt
* extreme high temperature
* highly acidic
* environment similar to early earth
* maybe the 1st living cells
* no other life could live

domain bacteria

* prokaryotic cells
* includes bacteria that are found everywhere else
* soil, atmosphere, skin, mouth, large intestine
* live with us in our environment
* includes disease causing as well as good bacteria

domain eukarya

* highly diverse
* 4 kingdoms


1. protista: complex single cell, some multicellular (water)
2. fungi: some unicelllular, most multicellular filamentous forms with specialized complex cells (fungus)
3. plantae: multicellular form with specialized complex cells (plants)
4. animalia: multicellular form with specialized complex cells (animals)

kingdom protista

* mostly single-celled eukaryotes that live in bodies of water: rivers, lakes, oceans
* absorb, photosynthesize or ingest food
* protozoans, algae, water molds, and slime mold

kingdom fungi

* all fungus, molds, yeast
* absorb food

kingdom plantae

* all plants
* photosynthesize food

kingdom animalia

* all animals
* ingest food

diatoms

unicellular protist with a unique two part, glass-like wall of silicon dioxide fossilized diatom walls compose much of the diatomaceous earth

kingdom (animalia)

all animals ingest food

phylum (chordata)

with backbones and spinal cord

class (mammalia)

with mammary glands and hair

order (primates)

ability to climb trees

family (hominidae)

ability to walk upright

genus (Homo)

large brain, tool use

species (sapiens)

modern humans

the human life cycle

* sperm (n) + ovum (n) = zygote (2n)
* reproductive organs (testes and ovaries) → meiosis → creates sperm and ovum → fertilization → creates diploid zygote → undergoes mitosis → puberty → creates gametes

gametogenesis

formation of the gametes

spermatogenesis

* formation of sperm inside the testes
* occurs continuously

seminiferous tubules

tube like structures, hold spermatogonium cells

spermatogonium cells

* diploid cells
* undergo meiosis to produce sperm
* directly turn into primary spermatocyte (diploid) → secondary spermatocyte (haploid) → 4 spermatids (haploid)

head of sperm

contains nucleus (chromosomes) and acrosome (digestive enzyme)

mid piece of sperm

contains a large amount of mitochondria

tail

flagella - responsible for movement

oogenesis

* formation of the ovum
* unequal cell division
* produces only 1 large ovum and 3 small nonfunctional
* women are born with the ovum they will produce in their lifetime
* occurs once per month during menstrual cycle
* process stops at menopause

nucleus of the ovum

contains 23 chromosomes

cytoplasm of the ovum

contains all of the organelles of the cell

cell membrane of the ovum

phospholipid bilayer membrane

vitelline membrane/layer of the ovum

surrounds the cell membrane

zona pellucida/jelly coat of the ovum

corona radiata of the ovum

a bunch of cells that protect the egg (the sperm must move around it to fertilize the egg)

fertilization

union of haploid egg and haploid sperm to form the diploid zygote

acrosomal reaction

* triggered when sperm comes in contact with the egg
* the acrosome at the tip of the sperm releases hydrolytic enzymes that digest the outer covering of the egg (zona pellucida = humans/jelly coat = sea urchins)

acrosomal process

* a protein grows from the acrosome
* allows for species specific fertilization
* this process binds to a specific receptor on the vitelline layer

vitelline layer

contains receptor proteins that the acrosomal \n process must bind to in order for the sperm \n nucleus to enter

fusion

sperm nucleus enters the egg

cortical reaction

release of Ca+2 or calcium from cortical granules leads to the fertilization envelope or an harden outer coat to prevent \n polyspermy (multiple sperm) from entering the egg

egg activation

* the rise in Ca2+ in the egg increases the rates of cellular respiration and protein synthesis
* with these rapid changes in metabolism, the egg is said to be activated
* the sperm nucleus joins with the egg nucleus and cell division begins
* the first cell division occurs 12–36 hours after sperm binding in mammals

cleavage

* rapid cell division without growth
* formation of morula which then becomes the blastula

indeterminate cleavage

each cell produced by cleavage has the capacity to develop into a complete embryo \n ex: identical twins

determinate cleavage

each cell has its own developmental process determined \n snail, if a cell is separated from the four cell stage produce a snail lacking body parts

blastomeres

cleavage partitions the cytoplasm of one large cell into many smaller cells

morula

solid ball of cells - occurs during cleavage

blastula

hollow ball of cells - occurs after morula during cleavage

blastoceol

the empty space within the blastula

yolk

* stored nutrients
* in frogs and many other land animals such as birds, cleavage is asymmetric
* greatly affects the pattern of cleavage

vegetal pole

has more yolk

animal pole

on top of the yolk

gastrulation

* production of 3 tissue layered embryo
* invagination or inward movement of cells

gastrula

three-layered embryo (endoderm, ectoderm, mesoderm)

organogenesis

formation of the organs

endoderm

* inside
* lines the digestive tract
* digestive tract and associated organs (liver, pancreas)
* lungs
* thyroid gland

mesoderm

* middle - in between the endoderm and ectoderm
* skeleton
* muscles
* kidneys
* reproductive system
* heart

ectoderm

* outer layer
* epidermis of skin including sweat glands, hair follicles
* nervous systems including nerves
* brain
* mouth and teeth
* eyes

archenteron

internal cavity which eventually becomes the digestive tract

blastopore

develops into the anus

involution

the surface cells of the blastula begin to move \n into the inside of embryo

neurulation

forms the brain and spinal cord

implantation

* the morula enters the uterus
* occurs at the blastula stage
* the blastula embeds into the inner layer of \n the uterus called the endometrium

trophoblast

the outer layer of the blastula and it embeds into the endometrium

inner cell mass

eventually becomes the embryo

chorion

gas exchange

amnion

encloses the amniotic fluid - insulates embryo

yolk sac

encloses the yolk - nutrients

allantois

disposes waste

morphogenesis

formation of the animal body

apoptosis

cell death - creates the hands

first trimester

the main period of organogenesis, development of the body organs

second trimester

* the fetus grows and is very active
* the mother may feel fetal movements
* the uterus grows enough for the pregnancy to become obvious

third trimester

the fetus grows and fills the space within the uterus

digestive

main function: food processing (ingestion, digestion, absorption, elimination)

mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, intestines, liver, pancreas, anus

circulatory

main function: internal distribution of materials

heart, blood vessels, blood

respiratory

main function: gas exchange

lungs, trachea, other breathing tubes

immune and lymphatic

main function: body defense

bone marrow, lymph nodes, thymus, spleen, lymph vessels

excretory

main function: disposal of metabolic waste; regulation of osmotic balance of blood

kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, urethra

endocrine

main function: coordination of body activities (such as digestion and metabolism)

pituitary, thyroid, pancreas, adrenal, and other hormone-secreting glands

reproductive

main function: reproduction

ovaries or testes and associated organs

nervous

main function: coordination of body activities; detection of stimuli and formulation of responses to them

brain, spinal cord, nerves, sensory organs

integumentary

main function: protection against mechanical injury, infection, dehydration; thermoregulation

skin and its derivatives (hair, claws, skin glands)

* covers the body protecting internal organs


* holds in moisture to prevent dehydration
* repair
* strong and resilient holding its shape
* helps regulate body temperature: homeostasis
* produces vitamin D upon exposure to sunlight 
* contains sensory receptors

epidermis

outer covering containing dead skin cells (dead skin cell layer)

dermis

contains collagen/elastin strength (nerve receptors and gives the skin strength)

hypodermis

subcutaneous layer (contains fat and insulates/cushions the organs)

keratinocytes

produce keratin which is a tough protein and provides the water proof barrier preventing water loss + produce vitamin D

melanocytes

cells produce melanin which is the pigment found in skin, hair and eyes + oxidation of existing pigments produces a tan upon exposure to the sun + used to protect the skin from UV rays

langerhans cells

involved in defense

merkel cells

sensory cells

skeletal

main function: body support, protection of internal organs, movement

skeleton (bones tendons ligaments, cartilage)

* support: land animals would sag from their own weight allows organism to stand up


* maintains animal shape
* protection of internal organs: skull protects the brain + ribs protect the heart, lungs
* movement: muscles attached to the skeleton
* mineral storage: storage of calcium
* blood cell formation-from bone marrow

muscular

main function: locomotion and other movement

skeletal muscles

sebaceous glands

produce oils + keeps skin moist so it won’t tear

hydrostatic skeleton

consists of fluid held under pressure in a closed body

flatworms, nematodes, annelids

exoskeleton

hard encasement on the surface of an animal

shells, molluscs, oysters, clams, lobsters, crabs, turtles

endoskeleton

bones within the skeletal system - consists of hard supporting elements, such as bones 

mammals

axial skeleton

* skull: many fused bones - protects the brain


* vertebral column: protects the spinal cord
* ribs: protects the heart and lungs
* sternum: breast bone - connects the ribs to protect the heart