Unit 2 Psychology

Biological psychology

The scientific study of the links between biological (genetic, neural, hormonal) and psychological processes. (Some biological psychologists call themselves behavioral neuroscientists, behavior genetics, physiological psychologists, or biopsychologists)

Neuron

A nerve cell; the basic building block of nervous system

Dendrites

A neuron's bushy, branching extensions that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body

Axon

The neuron extension that passes messages through its branches to other neurons or to muscles or glands

Myelin sheath

A fatty tissue layer segmentally encasing the axons of some neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed as neural impulses hop from one sausage-like node to the next

Action potential

A neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon

Refractory period

A period of inactivity after a neuron has fired

Threshold

The level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse

All-or-none response

A neuron's reaction of either firing (with a full-strength response) or not firing

Synapse

The junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron. The tiny gap at this junction is called the synaptic gap or synaptic cleft

Neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons. When released by the sending neuron, neurotransmitters travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse

Reuptake

A neurotransmitter's reabsorption by sending neuron

Endorphins

"Morphine within"--natural, opiate-like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure

Agonist

A molecule that, by binding to receptor site, stimulates a response

Antagonist

A molecule that, by binding to a receptor site, inhibits or blocks a response

Nervous system

The body's speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous system

Central nervous system (CNS)

The brain and spinal cord

Peripheral nervous system (PNS)

The sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous that connect the central nervous system (CNS) to the rest of the body — responsible for transmitting messages between CNS and all of the parts of the body. Divided into two parts: The Somatic Nervous System and Autonomic System

Nerves

Bundled axons that form neural "cables" connecting the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sense organs

Sensory (afferent) neurons

Neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord

Motor (efferent) neurons

Neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands

Interneurons

Neurons within the brain and spinal cord that communication internally and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs

Somatic nervous system

The division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body's skeletal muscles. Also called the skeletal nervous system. Transmits sensory messages to the central nervous system

Autonomic nervous system (ANS)

The part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart). Its sympathetic division arouses; its parasympathetic division calms

Sympathetic nervous system

The division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations — preparing the body for action (Fight or Flight)

Parasympathetic nervous system

The division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body after emergencies, conserving its energy

Reflex

A simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee-jerk response

Endocrine system

The body's "slow" chemical communication system a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream

Hormones

Chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands travel through the bloodstream and affect other tissues

Adrenal glands

A pair of endocrine glands that sit just above the kidneys and secrete hormones (epinephrine and norepinephrine) that help arouse the body in times of stress. Cause liver to release stored sugar, making energy available for emergencies. Triggered by the sympathetic nervous system

Pituitary gland

The endocrine systems most influential; gland. Under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands. Growth hormones regulates growth of muscles, bones, and glands. Prolactin stimulates production of milk in nursing women. Oxytocin is responsible for stimulating labor in pregnant women

Lesion

Tissue destruction. Brain ___ is a naturally or experimentally caused destruction of brain tissue

Electroencephalogram (EEG)

An amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity sweeping across the brain's surface, These waves are measured by electrode placed on the scalp

CT (computed tomography) scan

A series of X-ray photographs taken from different angles and combined by computer into a composite representation of a slice of the brain's structure. (Also called CAT scan)

PET (positron emission tomography) scan

A visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while brain performs a given task

MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)

A technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to provide computer-generated images of soft tissue. Scans show brain anatomy

fMRI (functional MRI)

A technique for revealing blood flow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans. Scans show brain function as well as its structure.

Brainstem

The oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skill; the brainstem is responsible for automatic survival functions

Medulla

The base of the brainstem controls heartbeat and breathing

Thalamus

The brain's sensory control center, located on top the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmitted replies to the cerebellum and medulla.

Reticular formation

A nerve network that travels through the brainstem and thalamus and plays an important role in controlling arousal

Cerebellum

The "little brain" at the rear of the brainstem; functions include processing sensory input, coordinating movement output and balance, and enabling nonverbal learning and memory

Limbic system

Neural system (including the hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus) located below the cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions and drives

Amygdala

Two lima-bean-sized neural clusters in the limbic system linked to emotion

Hypothalamus

A neural structure lying below the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature) helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward

Cerebral cortex

The intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information-processing system center

Glial cells (glia)

Cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons; they may also play a role in learning and thinking

Frontal lobes

Portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgements

Parietal lobes

Portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear receives sensory input or touch and body position

Occipital lobes

Portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; includes areas that receive information from the visual fields

Temporal lobes

Portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; includes the auditory areas, each receiving information primarily from the opposite ear

Motor cortex

An area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements

Somatosensory cortex

Area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations

Association areas

Areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functional rather, they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking

Plasticity

The brain's ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience

Neurogenesis

The formation of new neurons

Corpus callosum

The large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them

Split brain

A condition resulting from surgery that isolates the brains two hemispheres by butting the fibers (mainly those of the corpus callosum) connecting them

Consciousness

Our awareness of ourselves and our environment

Cognitive neuroscience

The interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language)

Dual processing

The principle that information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks

Behavior genetics

The study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior

Environment

Every external influences, from prenatal nutrition to the people and things around us

Chromosomes

Threadlike structures made of DNA molecules that contain the genes. Normal humans contain 46 chromosomes in 23 pairs in a double helix formation. 22/23 pairs are similar in both males and females (23rd is what determines whether we are male or female)

DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)

A complex molecule containing the genetic information that makes up the chromosomes

Genes

The biochemical units of heredity that make up the chromosomes; segments of DNA capable of synthesizing proteins

Genome

The complete instructions for making an organism, consisting of all the genetic material in that organism's chromosomes

Identical twins (monozygotic twins)

Twins who develop from a single fertilized egg that splits in two, creating two genetically identical organisms

Fraternal twins (dizygotic twins)

Twins who develop from separate fertilized eggs. They are genetically no closer than brothers and sisters, but they share a fetal environment

Molecular genetics

The subfield of biology that studies the molecular structure and function of genes

Heritability

The proportion of variation among individuals that we can attribute to genes. The ___ of a trait may vary, depending on the range of populations and environments studied

Interaction

The interplay that occurs when the effect of one factor (such as environment) depends on another factor (such as heritability)

Epigenetics

The study of environmental influences on gene expression that occur without a DNA change

Gene-environment interaction

Biological appearances have social consequences. People respond differently to recording artist Nicki Minaj and concert violinist Hilary Hahn

Evolutionary psychology

The study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection

Natural selection

The principle that, among the range of inherited trait variations, those contributing to reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations

Mutations

A random error in gene replication that leads to a change

Excitatory neurotransmitter

Positive ions arrive into the ion channel = more likely the next neuron will fire

Inhibitory

Negative ions arrive into ion channel = less likely the next neuron will fire

Acetylcholine

Control of muscles; required for movement

Dopamine

Motor behavior and pleasure

Noradrenaline

Prepares the body for action

Dopamine

Too little plays a role in Parkinson’s disease, as seen in the tremors and rigid, uncoordinated movements

GABA

An inhibitory neurotransmitter implicated in anxiety

Serotonin

Excitatory neurotransmitters that’s responsible for the balance of our mood - emotional arousal and sleep

Curare

Acetylcholine antagonist that causes paralysis

Black widow spider venom

Acetylcholine agonist causing seizures

Morphine

Agonist and boosts the effects of endorphins — increased use = body will stop producing endorphins causing drug withdrawal symptoms

Depression

Low levels of serotonin

Prozac

Agonist - A “selective serotonin reuptake inhibitory, blocks the reuptake of serotonin allowing more time for it to take effect, therefore boosting its effects

Dopamine

Too much causes schizophrenia

Norepinephrine

Reward, mood, arousal, fight/flight behavior

Norepinephrine

Too much: autonomic arousal, anxiety, manic behavior, schizophrenic behavior

Norepinephrine

Too little: possible depression, memory impairment

Alcohol

GABA agonist in that it boosts its inhibitory tendencies to stop action potentials

Hindbrain

The medulla, pons, and cerebellum

Midbrain

Small region located above the spinal cord between the hindbrain and the forebrain. Coordinates simple movements and sensory information: Vision and hearing. Reticular Activating System.

Forebrain

The Limbic system (thalamus, hypothalamus, hippocampus, amygdala), cerebrum, cerebral cortex

Cerebral Cortex

Occipital, temporal, parietal, frontal