2nd midterm

What are the different blood types according to the ABO blood typing system? What antigens/antibodies?

• Type A

  • Antigen A

  • Anti-B antibodies

  • (+/-) if presence of antigen D

• Type B

  • Antigen B

  • Anti-A antibodies

• Type AB

  • Antigen A

  • Antigen B

  • no Antibodies

• Type O

  • no Antigen

  • Anti-A antibodies

  • Anti-B antibodies

What is the Rh factor?  What makes blood Rh positive?

• Rh factor aka D antigen

• Rh +

  • Antigen D

  • No anti-D antibodies

• Rh -

  • no antigen D

  • no anti-D antibodies (unless exposed to Rh+ blood)

Complete a table of ABO blood types including its Rh factor.  Add which can donate to whom and receive from whom safely.

BLOOD TYPE	CAN GIVE TO	CAN RECEIVE FROM
A+	A+, AB+	A+, A-, O+, O-
A-	A+, A-, AB+, AB-	A-, O-
B+	B+, AB+	B+, B-, O+, O-
B-	B+, B-, AB+, AB-	B-, O-
AB+	AB+	EVERYONE
AB-	AB+, AB-	AB-, A-, B-, O-
O+	O+, A+, B+ AB+	O+, O-
O-	EVERYONE	O-

ABO blood type compatibility

• O

  • receive blood from O

• A

  • receive blood from O and A

• B

  • receive blood from O and B

• AB

  • receive blood from all

Rh blood type compatibility

• +

  • can give to +

• -

  • can give to + and -

Most common blood type

O+

Rarest blood type

AB-

Universal donor blood type

O-

Universal receiver blood type

AB+

What is erythroblastosis fetalis/hemolytic disease of the newborn?  What is the typical scenario that can lead to this condition (Rh of mother, father and baby)?

• When mother (Rh-) develops anti-D antibodies when exposed to baby’s blood (Rh+) which will attack the next baby (Rh+)

• Father Rh+

• Mother Rh-

• Babies Rh+

Can we prevent erythroblastosis fetalis?  If yes, how?

• administration of exogenous Rh immune globulin to mother

  • @26-28 wks of pregnancy

  • within 72 hr of delivery

• to prevent mother from developing anti-D antibodies

What is agglutination reaction?

RBC sticking together because of antigen-antibody binding

In a blood typing test, what anti-sera and blood type combination will result to clumping/agglutination?  Give examples.

• Type A

  • Anti-A serum clumping

  • no anti-b serum clumping

• Type B

  • no anti-a serum clumping

  • Anti-B serum clumping

• Type AB

  • Anti-A serum clumping

  • Anti-B serum clumping

• Type O

  • no clumping

• Rh+

  • clumping

• Rh-

  • no clumping

What are the two main categories of WBCs?  Categorize the WBCs, describe each in detail and draw them.

• granulocytes (BEN)

  • basophils

  • eosinophils

  • neutrophils

• agranulocytes (LM)

  • lymphocytes

    • smaller, round nuclei

  • monocytes

    • larger, kidney shaped nuclei

most and least common leukocytes

• neutrophils = 40-70%

• lymphocytes = 20-40%

• basophils = 0-1%

Which WBC is phagocytic

• monocytes

• neutrophils

• eosinophils

• basophils

• (aka all except lymphocytes)

Average WBC count

• 5,000-10,000/mm3

• Neutrophils

  • 55-75%

• Lymphocytes

  • 20-40%

• Monocytes

  • 3-8%

• Eosinophils

  • 2-4%

• Basophils

  • 0.5-1%

Meaning of CBC with diff

• CBC = complete blood count of white cells in blood

• CBC w/ diff = measure of each type of WBC

Define the following WBC response to inflammation terms:  diapedesis, adhesion, phagocytosis, rolling, capture

• Diapedesis

  • when WBC squeeze through tiny blood vessel walls to reach site of infection or injury

  • neutrophils + monocytes

• Adhesion

  • WBC stick to the inner blood vessel walls near inflammation site, preparing to exit bloodstream

  • neutrophils + monocytes

• Phagocytosis

  • WBC engulf and EAT harmful invaders like bacteria or debris to remove them from the body

  • neutrophils + monocytes

• Rolling

  • WBC lightly stick to blood vessel walls and slowly move along to find best spot to exit

  • neutrophils + monocytes

• Capture

  • WBC are temporarily caught by the blood vessel walls, helping them get ready to leave bloodstream and enter affected area

  • all WBC

explain diapedesis as a WBC response to inflammation

• Diapedesis

  • when WBC squeeze through tiny blood vessel walls to reach site of infection or injury

  • neutrophils + monocytes

explain adhesion as a WBC response to inflammation

• Adhesion

  • WBC stick to the inner blood vessel walls near inflammation site, preparing to exit bloodstream

  • neutrophils + monocytes

explain phagocytosis as a WBC response to inflammation

• Phagocytosis

  • WBC engulf and EAT harmful invaders like bacteria or debris to remove them from the body

  • neutrophils + monocytes

explain rolling as a WBC response to inflammation

• Rolling

  • WBC lightly stick to blood vessel walls and slowly move along to find best spot to exit

  • neutrophils + monocytes

explain capture as a WBC response to inflammation

• Capture

  • WBC are temporarily caught by the blood vessel walls, helping them get ready to leave bloodstream and enter affected area

  • all WBC

What are the cardinal signs of inflammation?

• Edema (tumor)

• Redness (rubor)

• Pain (dolor)

• Heat (calor)

• Loss of function

Where can you find lymphocytes?  What are T cells?  What are B cells?  Differentiate between the two.

• lymphocytes are found in thymus, lymph nodes and spleen

• Thymus derived lymphocytes = T cells

• Bone marrow derived lymphocytes = B cells

Function of neutrophils

• help body fight off bacterial + fungal infections by phagocytosis

• phagocytosis + release of enzymes and antimicrobial peptides

• releases NETS (neutrophil extracellular traps)

• apoptosis (programmed cell death)

What is antigen, antibody, epitope and immunity?

• antigen

  • molecules that activate the immune system

• antibody

  • recognize and combat harmful substances in body

• epitope

  • spot on pathogen that antibodies bind to to make pathogen a target

• immunity

  • body’s ability to defend itself against harmful invaders

What is the “lock and key” model of antibody structure?

• lock = unique shape of antigen

• key = identical shape of antibody’s antigen-binding site

Difference between B and T cells

• B cells

  • humoral immunity

  • secretes antibody

  • develop into plasma cells

  • bacterial infections

  • types of destruction

    • phagocytic - antibodies coat bacterial cell

    • complement system - attachment of antibody to antigen

• T cells

  • cell mediated immunity

  • doesn’t secrete antibody

  • must be close to victim cells to destroy

  • viruses, cancer cells, and cells of tissue transplants

  • 3 types

    • Killer (Cytotoxic) T cells – kill victim cells

    • Helper T cells – promote the activity of killer T cells and B cells

    • Regulatory (suppressor) T cells – dampen immune responses

ECG stands for

electrocardiogram

What is an ECG?  What does it show?

• A recording of electrical events of the heart

• Mainly records heart rate and rhythm to check for irregularity

What is the rationale behind ECG?

• body fluids has high concentration of electrolytes. The electrical activity generated by heart travels throughout the body.  This activity is then monitored by placing a pair of electrodes on different areas of the skin.

What are the basic concepts that are important to know about the heart?

• The chambers

• The valves

• The great vessels

• Oxygenated and deoxygenated blood

• Systole and diastole

• Pacemaker

• Pulmonary and systemic circulation

Define the cardiac cycle terms:  systole, diastole, automaticity, rhythmicity

• Systole- contraction phase

  • Depolarization → contraction → systole

• Diastole- relaxation phase

  • Repolarization → relaxation → diastole

• Automaticity - able to stimulate itself electrically in the absence of neural input (involuntary) (unlike skeletal muscle)

• Rhythmicity- having a regular, repeated pattern

  • Intrinsic regulation of systole and diastole

Enumerate the different heart valves, their other names, shape, location in the heart.

• Atrioventricular valves (AV valves)

  • Mitral (bicuspid) valve

    • Located between L atrium and L ventricle

    • Shape resembles mitre hat

  • Tricuspid valve

    • Located between R atrium and R ventricle

• Semilunar valves (SL valves)

  • Aortic valve

    • Located between L ventricle and aorta

  • Pulmonary valve

    • Located between R ventricle and pulmonary artery

What is the normal pacemaker of the heart?  Write down the steps in heart conduction.

• Sinoatrial Node (SA node)

  • Wave of depolarization easily spread across the R and L atria

• Steps of heart conduction

  • SA node fires →

  • Excitation spreads through atrial myocardium →

  • AV node fires →

  • Excitation spreads down AV bundle →

  • Purkinje fibers distribute excitation through ventricular myocardium

Compare and contrast systemic circulation and pulmonary circulation

• Systemic circulation

  • Circulated oxygenated blood across the rest of the body

• Pulmonary circulation

  • Moves blood between heart and lungs

  • Deoxygenated blood → lungs, oxygenated blood → heart

  • Pulmonary artery → lungs → pulmonary veins

How many limb leads are there in an ECG?  How about how many unipolar leads?  How many chest leads?  How many leads all in all?

• 6 limb/bipolar leads

• 6 chest/unipolar leads V1-6

The ECG has different waves.  What do these waves represent:  P wave, QRS complex, T wave and U wave?

• P wave → QRS complex → T wave → U wave

• P wave

  • Atrial depolarization

• QRS complex

  • Ventricular depolarization

• T wave

  • Repolarization of the ventricles at the beginning of diastole

• U wave

  • Incompletely understood

What information can be provided by an ECG?

• HR

  cardiac hypertrophy

  necrosis

  ischemia

  other conditions that may produce abnormalities of electrical conduction

  heart rhythm

How are heart sounds produced?

• Contraction and relaxation of ventricles →

• Pressure changes →

• One-way heart valves will close →

• Heart sound

  • Produced by closing valves

What is S1?  How about S2?  Which valves closes in S1 and in S2?  Which one is the “lub”?  Which one is the “dub”?  Are they normal heartbeats or not?

• S1 is the first heart sound, S2 is the second

• S1 = Lub

  • Closure of AV valves (atrioventricular valves)

    • MV + TV

    • ventricle contracts/systole

• S2 = Dub

  • Closure of SL valves (semilunar valves)

    • AV + PV

    • ventricles relax/diastole

• These are the sounds of normal heartbeats

Give examples of abnormal heart beats?

• Heart murmurs

  • Valve irregularity, septal defect, persistent fetal opening (foramen ovale) between the right and left atria after birth

• Mitral valve prolapse

  • Most common cause of chronic mitral regurgitation, where blood flows backward into left atrium

  • Can be congenital or acquired, people may live without symptoms, and others may need mitral valve to be repaired or replaced

Where to place stethoscope for both heart sounds?

• S1 Lub

  • Left 5th intercostal space, MCL

    • MCL = midclavicular line

• S2 Dub

  • Right and left 2nd intercostal space (both sides)

Where to place stethoscope to best hear valves?

• AV aortic valve

  • R 2nd ICS (near sternum)

• PV pulmonary valve

  • L 2nd ICS (near sternum)

• BV bicuspid valve

  • L 5th ICS

• TV tricuspid valve

  • L 5th ICS MCL (midclavicular line)

 What is spirometry and what does it measure?

Spirometry or lung function test.

Measure:
– lung volumes and capacities

– ventilation as a function of time

– lung function or lung health
(lung, chest wall and respiratory muscles) 

What are the parts of a spirometer?

Spirometer– is the apparatus
–volume indicator scale

–drum retainer

–floating bell

–water tank

– hose/tube

– single use mouthpiece

 Enumerate the different volumes and capacities.  Define each, state normal values (if discussed) and formulas.

• (TV) Tidal Volume

  • –- represents the normal volume of air inspired and expired during each normal (unforced) ventilation cycle

    • Normal TV = 500 mL

• (RV) Residual Volume

  • – volume of air REMAINING in the lungs after a maximum (forced) exhalation

    • Cannot be measured using expiration-only spirometers

    • RV = VC X age factor

• (IRV) Inspiratory Reserve Volume

  • – MAXIMUM volume of air that can be FORCEFULLY inhaled after normally (unforced) inhalation

    • Cannot be measured using expiration-only spirometers

    • IRV = VC - ERV - TV

• (ERV) Expiratory Reserve Volume

  • – is the MAXIMUM volume of gas that can be FORCEFULLY EXHALED after a normal exhalation

    • Normal ERV = 1,200 mL

• (VC) Vital Capacity

  • –MAXIMUM volume of air that can be exhaled after maximum (forced) inhalation

    • Normal VC is based on GENDER , AGE and HEIGHT in cm

    • VC= IRV + TV= ERV

• (IC) Inspiratory Capacity

  • – MAXIMUM volume of air that can be inhaled after normal (unforced) exhalation

• (FRC) Functional Residual Capacity

  • – volume of air REMAINING in the lungs after a normal (unforced) exhalation

• (TLC) Total Lung Capacity

  • – TOTAL VOLUME of air in the lungs after maximum inhalation

  • – Maximum volume of air the lungs can accommodate

  • – Sum of all volume compartments

    • Cannot be measured using expiration-only spirometers

    • TLC = VC X age factor

  • TLC = TV + IRV + ERV + RV

What is TV tidal volume and possible formulas

• (TV) Tidal Volume

  • –- represents the normal volume of air inspired and expired during each normal (unforced) ventilation cycle

    • Normal TV = 500 mL

What is RV residual volume and possible formulas

• (RV) Residual Volume

  • – volume of air REMAINING in the lungs after a maximum (forced) exhalation

    • Cannot be measured using expiration-only spirometers

    • RV = VC X age factor

What is IRV Inspiratory Reserve volume and possible formulas

• (IRV) Inspiratory Reserve Volume

  • – MAXIMUM volume of air that can be FORCEFULLY inhaled after normally (unforced) inhalation

    • Cannot be measured using expiration-only spirometers

    • IRV = VC - ERV - TV

What is ERV Expiratory Reserve volume and possible formulas

• (ERV) Expiratory Reserve Volume

  • – is the MAXIMUM volume of gas that can be FORCEFULLY EXHALED after a normal exhalation

    • Normal ERV = 1,200 mL

What is VC Vital Capacity and possible formulas

• (VC) Vital Capacity

  • –MAXIMUM volume of air that can be exhaled after maximum (forced) inhalation

    • Normal VC is based on GENDER , AGE and HEIGHT in cm

    • VC= IRV + TV= ERV

What is IC Inspiratory Capacity and possible formulas

• (IC) Inspiratory Capacity

  • – MAXIMUM volume of air that can be inhaled after normal (unforced) exhalation

What is FRC Functional Residual Capacity and possible formulas

• (FRC) Functional Residual Capacity

  • – volume of air REMAINING in the lungs after a normal (unforced) exhalation

What is TLC Total Lung Capacity and possible formulas

• (TLC) Total Lung Capacity

  • – TOTAL VOLUME of air in the lungs after maximum inhalation

  • – Maximum volume of air the lungs can accommodate

  • – Sum of all volume compartments

    • Cannot be measured using expiration-only spirometers

    • TLC = VC X age factor

  • TLC = TV + IRV + ERV + RV

 Your lung volumes and capacities are considered normal If your score is
_______ of the predicted value?

 Your lung volumes and capacities are considered normal If your score is
> 80 % of the predicted value?

What is Boyle’s Law?  Apply Boyle’s Law during inhalation?  How about during exhalation?

• The PRESSURE of gas is INVERSELY PROPORTIONAL to its VOLUME

• Inhalation:

  • thoracic cavity volume ↑

  • intrapulmonary pressure ↓ and air flows into the lungs

• Exhalation:

  • thoracic cavity volume ↓

  • intrapulmonary pressure ↑ and air exits the lungs

 What is the anatomic division of the respiratory system?  What are the structures in each division?

 ANATOMICALLY: divided into upper and lower respiratory tracts

• upper respiratory tract

  • nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx

• lower respiratory tract

  • trachea, bronchi, lungs

What is the functional division of the respiratory system?  What are the structures in each division?

FUNCTIONALLY: divided into a conducting portion (where only air transport occurs) and a respiratory portion (where gas exchange occurs)

• conducting zone

  • nasal cavity, pharynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles

• respiratory zone

  • bronchioles, alveolar ducts and sacs, alveoli

 Define pulmonary ventilation

 Is the movement of air into and out of the respiratory system, inhalation/exhalation

Define gas exchange

• External respiration exchanges gases between atmosphere —> blood (in the lungs)

•  Internal respiration exchanges gases between blood —> body’s cells

What are the two muscles of quiet breathing?

 Skeletal muscles of QUIET BREATHING include diaphragm and external intercostals
– contraction → inhalation
– relaxation → exhalation

What are the volume changes in the thoracic cavity that occur during inhalation and exhalation?

• During inhalation and exhalation, the thoracic cavity changes in ALL three dimensions

  • Vertical changes result from diaphragm movement

  • Lateral changes result from the rib cage elevation or depression

  • Anterior-posterior changes occur as the sternum moves anteriorly or posteriorly

What is blood pressure

The measurement of force applied to artery walls

What is the equation for blood pressure in relation to cardiac output, total peripheral resistance, heart rate and stroke volume?

BP = CO x TPR

CO = HR x SV

• BP = blood pressure

• CO = cardiac output

  • vol of blood pumped per min

• TPR = total peripheral resistance

• HR = heart rate, SV = stroke volume

Which artery do you auscultate when taking the blood pressure?

brachial artery

What is Korotkoff sound?

 It is heard when there is turbulent blood flow through a constriction in the brachial artery

Compare and contrast laminar flow with turbulent flow when taking the blood pressure

• Laminar (“layered”) flow–occurs when all parts of a fluid move in the same direction, parallel to the axis of the vessel.

• Turbulent flow occurs when some parts of the fluid move in radial and circumferential directions, churning and mixing the blood.

 Enumerate the instructions or questions you should ask/give your patient before taking his/her blood pressure?

• Patient should relax for at least 5 minutes.

• Smoking, exercise, drinking caffeinated and alcoholic drinks, full stomach,full bladder, extreme temperature–relax for at least 30 minutes.

• Patient should sit with back straight and supported.

• Feet flat on floor and uncrossed.

• Remove excess clothing that might interfere BP cuff or constrict the arm.

• *Pain can increase BP

• *Use appropriate size BP cuff (pediatric BP cuff, adult and XL)

What is the importance of taking the palpatory BP first

The importance of taking the palpatory first is because it helps establish a baseline before using a blood pressure clift. 

What is pulse pressure and its formula?

• Pulse pressure is the “gap” between the highest and lowest blood pressure numbers.

• Formula: Pulse Pressure = SBP-DBP

  • systolic bp - diastolic bp

What is mean arterial pressure and its formula?

• The average pressure in a person’s arteries during one heartbeat.

• Formula: MAP= ⅓ PULSE PRESSURE+DBP

  What is hypertension?

May be indicated by chronically elevated blood pressure measurements 

 What are the two main categories of hypertension?  Compare and contrast each category.

 The two main categories of hypertension are Primary and Secondary Hypertension.

• Primary hypertension is common and has no specific cause.

• Secondary hypertension is less common and caused by a specific medical condition.

• They both are conditions characterized by high blood pressure. 

Blood pressure classification table in adults

• Optimal

  • SBP = <120

  • DBP = <80

• Normal

  • SBP = 120-129

  • DBP = 80-84

• High normal

  • SBP = 130-139

  • DBP = 85-89

• Grade 1 hypertension

  • SBP = 140-159

  • DBP = 90-99

• Grade 2 hypertension

  • SBP = 160-179

  • DBP = 100-109

• Grade 3 hypertension

  • SBP = >= 180

  • DBP = >= 110

• Isolated systolic hypertension

  • SBP = >= 140

  • DBP = <90

 What are the 3 body controls of acid-base balance?

• lung

• kidney

• bicarbonate system

What is pH?  What is the pH of pure water?

Concentration of hydrogen ions (H^+) in a solution

Pure water is 7 ( neutral solution)

What is a buffer?  What is the major buffer of blood?

A solution that resists changes in pH when an acid or alkali is added to it. 

To keep pH at a nearly constant value

bicarbonate

 What is the normal blood pH?

7.35-7.45

What is an acid?

A molecule that can donate free H+ to a solution and LOWER its pH

What happens to our acid-base balance during hypoventilation + hyperventilation

• Hypoventilation

  • → CO2 is not all blown off

  • →  CO2 accumulates in the blood​

  • →decrease in blood pH ​

  • →Respiratory acidosis​

• Hyperventilation

  • → low CO2 levels in blood

  • → Respiratory alkalosis

What happens to acid-base balance when we exercise?

• Exercise Hyperpnea– deep breathing (+/- increase RR)

• Does it produce respiratory alkalosis?

  • Does not produce respiratory alkalosis

  • Is matched with increased product CO2 during exercise

 Think of situations where respiratory acidosis can happen?  How about situations where respiratory alkalosis can happen?

• Respiratory acidosis is a medical condition that occurs when the lungs are unable to remove enough carbon dioxide from the body, leading to an increase in blood acidity

  • hypoventilation

• Respiratory alkalosis is a condition in which the blood pH becomes too high due to low levels of carbon dioxide

  • hyperventilation

What makes a blood type O?

1. absence of O antibody

2. absence of a and b antigen

3. none

4. absence of a and b antibody

5. presence of o antibody

6. absense of B antibody

1. absence of O antibody

2. absence of a and b antigen

3. none

4. absence of a and b antibody

5. presence of o antibody

6. absense of B antibody

The statement, "there are more people with Rh (-) blood than people with Rh (+) blood", is ____________________________________.

• true

• false

false

Which is responsible for programmed cell death or apoptosis?

• neutrophils

• all are correct

• lymphocytes

• monocytes

• basophils

• eosinophils

• none

• neutrophils

• all are correct

• lymphocytes

• monocytes

• basophils

• eosinophils

• none

In simple terms, what is the "lock and key" model of antibody structure?

• the antibody is the key that will unlock the antigen in the bacteria

• none

• antibody must match antigen epitope in order to result in binding

• antibody must open the lock of the antigen in order to result in untangling

• the antibody is the key that will unlock the antigen in the bacteria

• none

• antibody must match antigen epitope in order to result in binding

• antibody must open the lock of the antigen in order to result in untangling

There are two ways of bacterial destruction by B lymphocytes.  Which way is described as destroying bacteria by coating it with antibodies to make it easier for neutrophils and tissue macrophages to phagocytize?

• none

• coating

• antibody coating

• phagocytic

• complement system

• none

• coating

• antibody coating

• phagocytic

• complement system

Which term refers to molecules that activate the immune system?

• antigen

• exposure

• none

• antibody

• immunity

• receptor protein

• antigen

• exposure

• none

• antibody

• immunity

• receptor protein

Which is mismatched with it's Latin term?

• pain: dolor

• edema: tumor

• redness: dolor

• none

• heat: calor

• pain: dolor

• edema: tumor

• redness: dolor

• none

• heat: calor

Which is a cardinal sign of inflammation?

• heat

• loss of function

• pain

• edema

• redness

• all

• heat

• loss of function

• pain

• edema

• redness

• all

Which is true about the B lymphocytes?

• develop into plasma cells

• secrete antibody

• usually activated in bacterial infection

• none

• all are correct

• responsible for humoral immunity

• develop into plasma cells

• secrete antibody

• usually activated in bacterial infection

• none

• all are correct

• responsible for humoral immunity

Which type of WBC is an agent of the immune system?

• neutrophils

• lymphocytes

• none

• all are correct

• monocytes

• eosinophils

• basophils

• neutrophils

• lymphocytes

• none

• all are correct

• monocytes

• eosinophils

• basophils

Where can you find lymphocytes?

• lymph nodes

• none

• spleen

• thymus

• all are correct

• lymph nodes

• none

• spleen

• thymus

• all are correct

How many leads did you use in our in-class lab activity on ECG?

• 12

• 9

• 3

• 6

• none

3

Which is true about ECG?

• none

• the rationale behind ECG is —- body fluids has high concentration of electrolytes. The electrical activity generated by heart travels throughout the body. This activity is then monitored by placing a pair of electrodes on different areas of the skin.

• all are true

• it can show a + or - abnormal pattern in the heart rhythm

• it stands for electrocardiogram

• it is the recording of electrical events of the heart

• none

• the rationale behind ECG is —- body fluids has high concentration of electrolytes. The electrical activity generated by heart travels throughout the body. This activity is then monitored by placing a pair of electrodes on different areas of the skin.

• all are true

• it can show a + or - abnormal pattern in the heart rhythm

• it stands for electrocardiogram

• it is the recording of electrical events of the heart

Which of the following is mismatched?

• U wave: incompletely misunderstood

• QRS complex: ventricular depolarization

• all are mismatched

• P wave: atrial depolarization

• none

• T wave: depolarization of the ventricles at the beginning of diastole

• U wave: incompletely misunderstood

• QRS complex: ventricular depolarization

• all are mismatched

• P wave: atrial depolarization

• none

• T wave: depolarization of the ventricles at the beginning of diastole

Which information can be provided by ECG?

• HR

• cardiac hypertrophy

• necrosis

• ischemia

• other conditions that may produce abnormalities of electrical conduction

• heart rhythm

• none

• all are correct

• HR

• cardiac hypertrophy

• necrosis

• ischemia

• other conditions that may produce abnormalities of electrical conduction

• heart rhythm

• none

• all are correct