Giga Psyc 3370 Final R

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Big Five Model (FFM)

• Openness to Experience (Culture/Intellect)

• Conscientiousness (Organization/Control)

• Extraversion (Surgency/Social Activity)

• Agreeableness (Social Adaptability)

• Neuroticism (Emotional Instability)

(Goldman)

Openness to Experience

(Culture/Intellect)

Low: Prefers routine; Practical; Dislikes change; Closed to new ideas and perspectives; Narrow interests; Sticks to what they know they like

High: Creative; Spontaneous; Enjoys challenging tasks; Enjoys art, music, theater, philosophy, science; Eccentric; Adventurous; Tries new things

Conscientiousness

(Organization/Control)

Low: Disorganized; Prone to procrastination; Fails to complete important tasks; Messy, unkept; Dislikes structure

High: Disciplined; Careful; Organized; Plans ahead; Completes tasks right away; High-achieving; Detail oriented; Rigid schedule

Extraversion

(Surgency/Social Activity)

Low: Reserved; Dislikes meeting new people; Avoids small talk; Fewer friends; Gains energy from alone time; Thoughtful

High: Outgoing; Conversation starter; Center of attention; Positive mood; Energetic around others; Fun-loving; Risk-taking

Agreeableness

(Social Adaptability)

Low: Doesn't care about others' feelings or problems; Manipulative; Self-centered; Difficulty to get along with; Treats others poorly

High: Cares for others; Empathetic; Cooperative; Collaborative; Loyal; Honest; Humble; Respectful; Trusting; Kind and considerate

Neuroticism

(Reverse: Emotional Stability)

Low: Emotionally stable; Copes well with stress; Doesn't worry much; Very calm, relaxed; Bounces back quickly; Shameless; Fearless

High: Experiences a lot of stress; Pessimistic; Gets upset easily; Anger, hostility; Self- conscious, insecure; Worries about many different things

Honest/Humility

(B6/HEXACO)

Low: Sly, deceitful, greedy and materialistic, pretentious and entitled, hypocritical, boastful, pompous, power-seeking, unethical and exploitative behaviors

High: Sincere, honest, faithful/loyal, modest, unassuming, fair-minded, acts ethically, likely to admit when wrong, avoids acting unethically

PID-5

• Negative affectivity – neuroticism

• Detachment – extraversion

• Antagonism – agreeableness

• Disinhibition – conscientiousness

• Psychoticism – openness

Psychoticism (P5)

(Openness Parallel)

Exhibiting culturally incongruent, eccentric, or unusual behaviors and cognitions

Disinhibition (P5)

(Conscientiousness Parallel)

Orientation toward immediate gratification

Detachment (P5)

(Extraversion Parallel)

Withdrawal from social-emotional experiences

Antagonism (P5)

(Agreeableness Parallel)

Behaviors that put the individual at odds with others.

Negative Affectivity (P5)

(Neuroticism Parallel)

Tendency to experience intense, frequent, and diverse negative emotions and their behavioural manifestations.

Dark Triad

Narcissism + Machiavellianism + Psychopathy

Narcissism

Core features

• Grandiosity + attention seeking (antagonism) • Sense of entitlement • Lack of affective empathy • Preoccupation with fantasies of success/power

Common behaviors

• Exploitation of others for personal gain • Arrogant and showy behaviors • Jealousy of others or belief that others are envious of them • Difficulty maintaining long-term relationships

Machiavellianism

Core features

• • Strategic manipulation of others (antagonism) • Cynical worldview • Focus on self-interest • Emotionally detached from others (detachment) • Long-term planning orientation

• Common behaviors

• Calculated, pragmatic approach to social situations • Willingness to deceive others for personal advantage • Views others as tools for achieving own goals • Flexible morality ("the ends justify the means")

Psychopathy

Core features

• Lack of empathy and lack of remorse (antagonism) • Callousness and shallow emotional experiences • Impulsivity and excitement-seeking (disinhibition)

Common behaviors

• Irresponsible, reckless, careless behavior • Criminality (e.g., violent and nonviolent crimes) • Superficial charm • Difficulty learning from punishment • Short-term planning orientation (i.e., poor impulse control)

Personality Psychology (characteristics)

individual differences

traits

“normal” or adaptive

Definition of Personality

is the dynamic organization, within the individual, of psychophysical systems that create the person’s characteristic patterns of behavior thoughts, and feelings (adapted from Allport, 1961).

How we think about personality

Consistency about a person across

• Time

• Similar & Different situations

Something originating within person

Summary for what a person is like

Two Main Approaches in Personality

Individual Differences

Intrapersonal Functioning

What is a Theory

A set of related concepts that

1. organizes existing knowledge

2. provides a predictive framework that leads to new hypotheses, which can lead to new knowledge

Not a mere guess

What makes a good theory

1. Comprehensiveness

2. Parsimony

3. Research Relevance

4. Falsifiability

Comprehensiveness

• Accounts for a wide variety of data

• Encompasses a number of different kinds of phenomena

Parsiomony

• Invokes fewest number of new concepts and assumptions

• Does not use a different concept to explain every other phenomenon

• Explains everything you need to explain in simplest way possible

Research Relevance

• Leads to new hypotheses

Falsifiability

• Allows for possibility of being disproven

• Invokes clear, explicit concepts that can potentially be shown to be inaccurate

Components of Personality Theory

A good personality theory should address each of the following:

1. Structure

2. Process

3. Growth and Development

4. Psychopathy and Change

Structure of Personality

• Refers to the stable, enduring aspects (i.e., patterns) of personality

• The building blocks of a personality theory

• Common structural concepts:

  • Trait – consistency of responses across contexts; adjective; continuous dimension

  • Type – clustering of many traits; tend to be seen as categorical or mutually exclusive

  • System – collection of highly interconnected parts that work together to create "personality functioning"

Process of Personality

• Refers to the motivational concepts used to account for behavior

• Three main categories:

  • Pleasure or hedonic motives – emphasize the pursuit of happiness and avoidance of pain

  • Growth or self-actualization motives – emphasize the efforts of the individual to achieve self-fulfillment and realize their potential

  • Cognitive motives – emphasize the individual's efforts to understand and predict events in the world

Growth and Development (of Personality)

• Accounting for the origins of individual differences

• Accounting for the factors that produce each unique individual

• Accounting for genetic and environmental determinants (i.e., nature and nurture)

• Accounting for change and stability across the lifespan

Psychopathy and Change (of Personality)

• Personality has implications for the maladaptive range of human experiences

  • Why do some people cope with stress and navigate daily life more adaptively than others?

  • How can pathological forms of behavior be modified in sustainable ways?

• How and why do people change or resist change?

Four Main Sources of Scientific Data in Personality Psychology

• Self-report (S-Data)

• Informant-report (I-Data)

• Life records (L-Data)

• Behavioral observations (B-Data)

  • Experimental/Laboratory

  • Naturalistic

Self-Report (S-Data)

• Self-judgments, or an individual's evaluation of their own personality

  • The world’s best expert on your personality is you

• Questionnaires, surveys, open-ended questions, and interviews

• Most frequent data source

• Often used as the ‘truth’

Informant-Report (I-Data)

• Data provided by knowledgeable observers

• Partners, acquaintances, coworkers, clinical psychologists, etc.

• Based on the informant's observations of the individual in the context(s) they know them from

• Commonly used in daily life

• Self-Other research shows impressive agreement on several (but not all) traits

Life-Record (L-Data)

• The "residue" of personality

• Life outcomes (e.g., arrest record, marital history, number of children, finances, job history, medical history, reddit posts)

• Verifiable, concrete, objective data that can be obtained through archival records

Behavioral (B-Data)

Laboratory/Experimental Data

• Carefully, systematically collected via observation in a controlled setting

• Experimental designs basically involve a manipulation (IV) and an observation (DV)

• Includes test/task performance

• Includes physiological data (e.g., heart rate, muscle tension, skin conductance)

Naturalistic Data

• Observations made in real-world contexts/settings

• Includes video and audio data

• Includes daily diary and experience-sampling (which are also S-Data)

Advantages & Disadvantages of S-Data

Advantages

• Huge amount of information available

• Reporter has access to private thoughts, feelings, intentions, memories

• Some X-Data is true by definition

• Self-concept as a causal force

  • Creating your own reality

  • Setting goals for yourself

  • Self-verification

• Easy to administer (especially questionnaires)

• Cost-effective

Disadvantages

• Sometimes people won't want to tell you the truth

• Sometimes people can't tell you what you want to know

• Potentially relied on too heavily in the field

• Making a good (valid and reliable) measure isn't as simple as it seems

• Not all measures are valid and reliable

Advantages & Disadvantages of I-Data

Advantages

• Can be a large amount of information (depends on the informant and the questions)

• Real-world basis (compared to lab experiments)

• Common sense can support judgments (varies by rater)

• Some X-Data is very likely the truth (e.g., charisma)

• Causal force?

Disadvantages

• Incomplete information

• Lack of access to private experiences

• Memory errors

• Biases or prejudices that introduce error

• More difficult to obtain than S-Data

Advantages & Disadvantages of L-Data

Advantages

• Intrinsic importance to research

• Usually constitutes life outcomes that psychologists what to know about, predict, influence, etc.

• Intrinsic importance to individuals – basic information that tells a lot about an individual's history and personal context

• Relatively unbiased, verifiable, concrete

Disadvantages

• Multideterminism – any given life outcome is likely the result of MANY factors, not just the one(s) you're interested in

• Archival records:

  • May be difficult to access

  • Use may violate privacy

  • May contain gaps

  • Not the whole picture

• Can be hard to make meaningful observations about personality using X Data

Advantages & Disadvantages of B-Data

Advantages

• Range of possibilities and possible contexts

  • Experiments: can create novel situations and see how people act

  • Naturalistic: see how people act in the "real world"

• Quantifiable and seemingly objective

Disadvantages

• Difficult, sometimes impractical, and expensive

• Uncertain interpretation

• Experimental: not real life

• Naturalistic: hard to capture what you are interested in; maybe not candid

Latent Constructs

Psychological qualities that cannot be directly observed, that we must infer from patterns in observed variables

Ex: extraversion, self-esteem, anxiety

Categorical Variables

Nominal – discrete categories

• Examples: marital status; presence/absence of a diagnosis; personality type

Ordinal – ranked categories

• Examples: rank in a competition; education level; developmental stage

Continuous Variables

Interval – numeric scales with equal intervals between values and no true zero

• Examples: temperature; intelligence quotient (IQ); extraversion

Ratio – numeric scales with equal intervals between values and a true zero; can be compared with ratios

• Examples: age; number of hours slept; reaction time; frequency

Case Method/Studies

• Collect a lot of information about one case, subject, person

• Uses:

  • Study a rare or unique phenomenon

  • Generate ideas for further investigation

  • Sometimes necessary (e.g., figure out what went wrong)

• Limitations:

  • Unknown, very limited generalizability

  • Too much data, not enough clarity

Experimental Method

Control variables (manipulate IV and analyze DV outcome)

Advantages

• Allows causal inference (can establish cause-and affect)

• High internal validity (when designed well)

• Allows precise control over conditions • Can be replicated to verify findings

Disadvantages

• Low external validity (i.e., generalizability beyond the lab setting and to other cases)

• Ethical and practical limitations

• Can be difficult, expensive, and time-consuming

• Risk of participant reactivity (e.g., demand characteristics)

Correlational Method

Test/Model the associations between variables

• Cannot establish cause-and-effect

  • does NOT equal causation

Cross-Sectional Design

Single slice in time

• Data is collected at one point in time

• Can only examine the “concurrent” associations among variables

Longitudinal Design

Across time

• Data is collected at multiple points in time

• “Temporal precedence” can be established (one of factors required for causation)

4 Causal Inference Criteria “X causes Y”

1. Covariation: X&Y must be empirically related

2. Temporal Priority: Cause (X) must precede Effect (Y) in Time

3. Elimination of Alternate Explanations: Observed relation of X&Y cannot be due to 3rd variable

4. Theoretical Framing: Mechanism linking cause and effect

Regression Models

• Simple linear regression – predict one variable from another

• Multiple linear regression – multiple variables ("predictors") are entered into a model to predict another variable (DV, or Y)

• Logistic regression – predict a categorical outcome

• Hierarchical regression – groups of predictors are entered at different levels/steps – tells how much additional variance is explained by the new predictors

Factor Analysis

• Able to model latent constructs from observed variables

• Able to model the relations between latent constructs

Projective Tests

• Ambiguous stimuli

• Open-ended response format

• Holistic analysis

Ex- Rorshach, Draw-A-Person, TAT

Objective Tests

• Behavioral sampling

• Self-report validity

• Nomothetic approach allows between-persons comparisons

• Empirical foundation

Ex- BFI, MMPI-2-RF, Ennegram, IAT

Barnum Effect

Vague descriptions that feel personally meaningful

Face Validity

When you look at measure does it seem like it’s measuring the target construct

Construct Validity

• Do responses to the measure actually capture the target construct?

• Overarching form of validity – informed by all psychometric data (i.e., evidence of other types of validity and reliability and generalizability)

• Never "proven"

Content Validity

The degree to which the content in the measure captures the target construct (i.e., captures what you are trying to measure)

• Three components:

  • Relevance

  • Comprehensiveness

  • Representativeness

Criterion Validity

The degree to which the measure predicts an outcome of interest

• Prediction of relevant real world outcomes (e.g., college GPA) is the most stringent, strongest evidence of criterion

• Prediction of relevant test variables (e.g., self-reported symptoms of depression) is most common

• Two types of this validity:

  • Concurrent validity

  • Predictive validity

Incremental Validity

• Does the measure predict an outcome of interest over and above other relevant predictor variables?

  • Often tested with hierarchical regression

• Provides evidence of the relevance of the target construct and utility of the measure

Convergent Validity

Association of the measure with another established measure of the SAME construct

• e.g., correlations of .70 to 1.0

Discriminant Validity

Association of the measure with measures of similar but DIFFERENT constructs

• Strength of expected correlation should be based on theory (how closely related are the target constructs?)

Inter-rater reliability

Correlation (r) between self-report and informant report on the same construct

• Usually want individuals and their informant to tell a similar story (produce similar result)

Dependability/Test-Retest Reliability

the correlation between individuals' responses at two different timepoints

Internal Consistency

The degree to which items are related to one another

• Usually tested with Cronbach's alpha (α), Best tested with AIC

Generalizability

Under what circumstances can we trust these results?

• To which alternate conditions, settings, timepoints, contexts, populations, methods, etc. Do these results replicate?

Generalizability Tests

• Cross-validation – testing the measures across multiple samples and contexts

• Replication – helps test the generalizability

• Measurement invariance testing – empirical test of a measure's generalizability

Common Approaches to Organizing Personality (theories)

• Developmental stages

• Systems/processes

• Typologies

• Traits

Common Themes in Personality Theory (McAdams, 1997)

• The whole person (“holism”)

• Motivational drives

• Individual differences

Early Greek Personality Conceptualizations

Hippocrates - 4 humors (processes underlying moods)

Galen - 4 temperaments (personality types)

Locke v Hobbes philosophy

Locke - blank slate

Hobbes - humans are born the way they are forever

Psychoanalysis 1900s-1940s (People)

S. Frued, Carl Jung, Karen Horney, Eric Erikson

Behaviorism 1910s-1950s (People)

Pavlov, Watson, Skinner

Humanism 1940s-1970s (People)

Maslow, Rogers

Cognitive Psychology 1950s-Present (People)

Mischel, Bandura, Chomsky

Psychic determinism

Everything has an identifiable underlying cause originating in the Mind

Components of Personality Theory in Psychoanalysis

Structure

• Id, ego, superego

Process

• Much occurs in the unconscious

• Nature vs nurture

Growth/Development

• Emphasis on early childhood

Stability/change

• Psychic determinism – limited change

Murray’s Personology

Human mind as irrational and passionate, full of conflict and emotion

• Needs

• Presses

• Themas

• Unity Thema

Alfred Adler

Viewed individuals as creative and active, rather than hardwired

emphasized the individual and their social context

• Social interest – concept that people's mental health depends on their innate potential for cooperation, empathy, concern for the welfare of others, and contribution to the common good

Carl Jung

• Collective Unconscious

• Archetypes - symbolic images within collective individuals

Anima

Idealized feminine prototype in the minds of men

Animus

idealized masculine prototype in the minds of women

Karen Horney

Neo-Freudian & first feminist psychologist

believed in the possibility of growth and self-realization/self actualization

Neurotic Needs

• to be loved

• to dominate

• to be independent

Klein

Emotionally important things and persons are referred to as “objects”

• First object inspires both love and hate

Behaviorism (Assumptions)

• Observable behavior all that matters

• You are what you do (behavior=personality)

• Tabula rasa (blank slate)

  • Personality is entirely learned

Conditioning (processes)

Habituation: getting used to association

Generalization: learned association generalized to similar

Extinction: unpairing a conditioned association

Spontaneous Recover: stimuli paired again

Social Learning Theory (Bandura)

Emphasizes observational learning (modeling) and relevance of social context

• Attention → retention → reproduction → motivation

Reciprocal Determinism

Personality emerges from the dynamic interactions among

1. personal factors

2. behavior patterns

3. environmental influences

Albert Bandura

critiqued earlier behaviorists for ignoring social environment

Viewed humans as active agents who have capacity for self-efficacy and self-regulation

Developed social learning theory

Julian Rotter

Locus of control

• Internal factors (e.g., one's own efforts and abilities)

• External factors (e.g., luck, fate, powerful others)

Expectancy-Value Theory

• Expectancies – the beliefs about likely outcomes of behavior

• Values – the importance places on those outcomes

Components of Personality Theory in Behaviorism

Structure

• Observable behaviors

Process

• Behavior is learned through experiences

• Behavior is a response to the situation

Growth/Development & Stability/change

• Personality can develop and change across the lifespan if new learning occurs

Construal

each person’s individualized experience of the world

Introspection

observing one’s own perceptions and thought processes

Three components of Experience

Umwelt – biological, bodily sensations

Mitwelt – social thoughts and feelings (bidirectional – self to others and others to self)

Eigenwelt – personal thoughts and feelings (understanding of oneself)

Throwness

We are born into circumstances beyond our control

Congruence

harmony and consistency between lived experience, self-concept, and behavior

Incongruence

discrepancies between actual experience, self concept, and/or behavior

• characteristic of mental health struggles