Lecture on Attention and Information Processing

Flashcards covering key vocabulary and concepts from the lecture on attention and information processing.

Automaticity

The ability to perform tasks with little or no attention, often developed through practice.

Top-down processing

A type of information processing that relies on prior knowledge and expectations to interpret incoming stimuli.

Bottom-up processing

Processing that begins with the incoming stimuli and builds up to perception.

Attention

The cognitive process of selectively focusing on specific information while ignoring other stimuli.

Task switching

The ability to shift focus between different tasks that require different cognitive processes.

Executive attention

The ability to manage and control attention resources, including inhibiting distractions and focusing on relevant information.

Prior knowledge

Information and experiences stored in long-term memory that influence how new stimuli are processed.

Current stimulus factors

Immediate environmental cues that affect attention and processing.

Internal attention

Focus on internal processes such as thoughts and memories.

External attention

Focus on external stimuli in the environment.

Cognitive load

The total amount of mental effort being used in the working memory.

Rumination

The tendency to continuously think about the same thoughts, often related to distress.

Depleting attention

The phenomenon where the ability to focus is diminished due to prolonged mental effort.

Neural circuits

Networks of neurons that work together to process information and execute functions.

Factors modifying Attention

• Allocation and intensity based on:

  • task complexity

  • familiarity of stimuli

  • individuals current cognitive state

Internal attention responsible for

Accessing & manipulating prior:

• prior stimulus factors & prior representation factors

• learned concepts

• established representations

from a persons individuals long-term memory

Internal Attention tasks

Critical for tasks requiring

• reflection

• planning

• or relating new info > exisiting knowledge

External attention dedicated to

Engaging & processing with current stimulus factors & representations

• directly from the external environment

External Attention tasks

• real-time perception

• reaction time

• interaction with world around us

Classical Model to reading

• considered automatic – all or none

• This model posits that reading occurs in a fixed sequence where letter recognition leads to word recognition, functioning without conscious effort or variation.

Gradual Model to reading

• This more nuanced model proposes that automaticity in reading is not absolute but rather a continuum

Based on factors 

• Familiar terms lead to more automatized reading = requiring less conscious effort and attentional resources.

• New terms/languages require more conscious effort = significantly more conscious effort and controlled processing.

Influences of Prior Stimulus Factors

• Familiar terms (e.g., "long-term memory," "cognitive load") or concepts that have been frequently encountered activate stronger neural pathways

• Prior exposure to terms affects their encoding strength in long-term memory, making their retrieval nearly effortless when encountered again.

Person Factors to Attention

• An individual's background, expertise, and frequency of engagement with specific content profoundly influence automaticity.

  • E.g Cog student → exhibit stronger recognition & processing → cog psych terms = due to repeated exposure & deep semantic encoding

• Positive reinforcement for correct usage can further strengthen automaticity.

  • E.g. applying terms in academic discourse or problem solving → further cement associations = enhance both retrieval speed and& accuracy

• Interactions between prior stimulus factors and personal factors lead to the formation of strong long-term representations, influencing attention required for internal retrieval.

  • Eg. Pre-exisiting knowledge + personal cog history = lead to formulation of long-term representations + attentional resources for internal retrieval & comprehension

Characteristics Affecting Current Stimulus Quality:

• Clear representation in immediate environment (e.g., text in bold font).

• Expected contexts enhance processing speed and efficiency.

• Familiarity of current stimuli leads to automatic recognition, whereas unfamiliar constructs lead to slower, controlled processing.

Processing Levels

where information is encoded at different depths, typically including shallow and deep processing.

• Below threshold (automatic/unconscious processing)

• Controlled processing (above threshold)

Below threshold Processing

Unconscious processing (e.g., skimming, detecting familiar terms with minimal attention).

• This level involves rapid, effortless, and often unconscious processing that occurs with minimal or no attentional resources.

  • System 1 thinking

Dual-Processing Theory: System 1 thinking

refers to the fast, automatic, and intuitive way of thinking, often driven by emotions and heuristics.

Controlled Processing (Above threshold)

When engaging deeply for theoretical understanding, requiring greater attention.

• This level signifies deep, deliberate, and effortful processing that requires significant attentional engagement.

  • System 2 thinking

Dual-Processing Theory: System 2 thinking

• refers to the slow, analytical, and rational way of thinking that is more deliberate and requires conscious effort.

• demanding greater cognitive resources for conscious thought, reasoning, and decision-making.

Application of Theory: Emotion Recognition

is the ability to identify and interpret emotional expressions in oneself and others. It plays a crucial role in social interactions and emotional intelligence.

Factors to child recognising emotions from parents 

• Strong long-term memory associated with the parent's anger.

  • e.g., the parent's facial expression, tone of voice, or body language associated with anger

• Requires little attention for recognition if familiar with that emotion.

  • The child can automatically detect the emotion

• Unexpected context may require more attention for accurate interpretation.

  • (e.g., the parent is smiling but speaking in an angry tone, or expressing anger in an unusually calm manner)

    • this incongruity requires increased attentional resources for accurate interpretation, leading to slower, more controlled processing to resolve the conflict.

Task Switching

Ability to shift focus between tasks with different cognitive demands

• E.g. Reading an article, pausing to chat, then returning to reading.

Task Switching Experimental Paradigm

Measuring reaction time and errors during task switching, demonstrating slower performance and increased cognitive load.

• e.g., categorizing numbers by parity and then by magnitude, or alternating between color and shape judgments

Key measures include reaction time (RT) and error rates.

• where performance is slower and less accurate immediately after a task switch compared to when the task is repeated.

Implications of Frequent Task Switching:

Often inefficient, leading to cognitive fatigue over time due to the brain's requirement to 'reset' its cognitive machinery for each task.

• This constant reorientation, known as a 'switch cost,' consumes valuable attentional and executive resources, reducing overall productivity and increasing mental strain

Executive Attention

Monitoring stimuli, resolving conflicts, inhibiting inappropriate responses, and regulating focus to align with current goals 

Examples of Executive Control in Daily Life

• inhibiting the urge to respond impulsively during an argument

• consciously switching problem-solving strategies when an initial approach fails,'

• diligently monitoring for errors in a complex calculation

• or actively preventing external distractions (like social media notifications) from interrupting a focused work session.

Common Task for Measuring Inhibition: Go/No-Go Task:

Respond to stimuli with specific responses while inhibiting inappropriate ones (measures accuracy via commission and omission errors).

• The accuracy of inhibition is measured by counting commission errors (responding to a No-Go stimulus) and omission errors (failing to respond to a Go stimulus)

Providing insights into an individual's inhibitory control abilities

Types of Attention 

• Selective Attention

• Sustained Attention

• Divided Attention (Multitasking)

• Task Switching

• Executive Control

Selective Attention

Focusing cognitive resources on one particular stimulus or task while actively filtering out or ignoring other competing stimuli

• e.g., attending to a lecturer's voice amidst the background chatter of a coffee shop

Sustained Attention

The ability to maintain focused attention and vigilance over an extended period of time, even on monotonous tasks

• e.g., staying actively engaged throughout a long academic lecture or monitoring a radar screen for infrequent signalswhile resisting distractions or fatigue.

Divided Attention (Multitasking)

The capacity to split attentional resources and process multiple tasks or stimuli simultaneously.

• Although often attempted, true simultaneous processing is rare;

  • typically, it involves rapid switching between tasks, risking reduced engagement in each primary task and increased error rates

Task Switching

Alternating cognitive focus back and forth between different tasks that have distinct goals and demands, often exhausting due to cognitive reset needed.

Executive Control

Regulating attention and inhibiting distractions. It encompasses processes such as actively inhibiting irrelevant distractions, resolving cognitive conflicts, and flexibly allocating attention according to current goal

• e.g., resisting social media distractions

Attention System

not solely directed outwards but is a shared resource, actively deployed for

• both internal (e.g., thoughts, memories, plans) and external (e.g., environmental stimuli) processing.

Internal Dominance Hypothesis

Attention tends to favor internal thoughts (e.g., planning, reflection) over external stimuli.

• Attention tends to favor internal cognitive processes such as planning, prediction, self-reflection, and memory retrieval over external sensory input

Implications for Meditation and attention 

By consciously directing focus to external sensations (like breath or sounds) or specific internal thoughts without judgment

• individuals can learn to better regulate the balance between internal and external attention, enhancing present-moment awareness.

Clinical Implications to attention systems

Ruminative depression

• an excessive and persistent internal focus on negative thoughts can overpower external engagement.

ADHD

• difficulties in regulating both internal and external attention contribute to challenges in sustained focus and task completion.

Attention in Cognition & Perception

• Attention is not solely external; there is a significant internal bias that requires managing to balance cognitive demands effectively.