Unit 4 Social Psychology and Personality

Attributions

Explanations for why events or behaviors occur.

Dispositional attributions

Assigning cause to internal traits or personality.

Situational attributions

Attributing behavior to external factors.

Explanatory style

A person's habitual way of explaining events.

Optimistic explanatory style

Believing good things are permanent and due to self.

Pessimistic explanatory style

Believing bad events are one's fault and lasting.

Actor/observer bias

Attributing our actions to situations, others' to disposition.

Fundamental attribution error

Overemphasizing personal traits over situations in others.

Self-serving bias

Attributing successes to self, failures to external causes.

Internal locus of control

Belief that one controls their own fate.

External locus of control

Belief that outside forces determine fate.

Mere exposure effect

The more we're exposed to something, the more we tend to like it.

Self-fulfilling prophecy

Expectations lead people to act in ways that make those expectations come true.

Social comparison

Evaluating oneself by comparing to others.

Upward social comparison

Comparing yourself to someone better to improve or inspire.

Downward social comparison

Comparing yourself to someone worse off to feel better.

Relative deprivation

Feeling worse off by comparing yourself to others who are perceived as better off.

Stereotype

Generalized belief about a group.

Cognitive load

Mental effort being used.

Prejudice

Prejudgment or unjustified attitude toward a group.

Discrimination

Unfair actions based on group membership.

Implicit attitudes

Unconscious beliefs influencing behavior.

Just-world phenomenon

Belief that people get what they deserve.

Out-group homogeneity bias

Seeing out-group members as all alike.

In-group bias

Favoring one's own group.

Ethnocentrism

Judging other cultures by one's own.

Belief perseverance

Clinging to beliefs despite contrary evidence.

Confirmation bias

Favoring information that confirms beliefs.

Cognitive dissonance

Discomfort from conflicting thoughts or behaviors.

Social norms

Accepted behaviors in a group.

Social influence theory

Behavior influenced by real or imagined others.

Normative social influence

Conforming to be liked or accepted.

Informational social influence

Conforming for accuracy.

Persuasion

Influencing attitudes or behavior.

Elaboration likelihood model

Theory of persuasion through central/peripheral routes.

Central route

Persuasion via logic and evidence.

Peripheral route

Persuasion via superficial cues.

Halo effect

One good trait leads to overall positive impression.

Foot-in-the-door

Agreeing to small requests leads to bigger ones.

Door-in-the-face

Large request denied leads to smaller one accepted.

Conformity

Changing behavior to match group.

Obedience

Following orders from authority.

Individualism

Emphasis on individual goals.

Collectivism

Emphasis on group goals.

Multiculturalism

Embracing multiple cultures.

Group polarization

Group discussion strengthens opinions.

Groupthink

Desire for harmony overrides realistic decisions.

Diffusion of responsibility

Less personal responsibility in groups.

Social loafing

Less effort in groups than alone.

Deindividuation

Loss of self-awareness in groups.

Social facilitation

Improved performance with audience.

False consensus effect

Overestimating how much others agree with you.

Superordinate goals

Shared goals requiring cooperation.

Social traps

Conflicting parties pursue self-interest over group benefit.

I/O psychologists

Study workplace behavior and efficiency.

Burnout

Emotional exhaustion from chronic stress.

Altruism

Helping others without personal gain.

Prosocial behavior

Positive, helping behavior.

Social debt

Obligation to return a favor.

Social reciprocity norm

Expectation to return help.

Social responsibility norm

Help those who depend on us.

Bystander effect

Less likely to help in a crowd.

Situational variables

External factors influencing behavior.

Attentional variables

Where focus is directed affects response.

Psychodynamic theory

Personality is shaped by unconscious motives and conflicts, especially from childhood.

Rationalization

Creating a seemingly logical reason or excuse for behavior that is actually irrational.

Unconscious processes

Mental activities beyond conscious awareness that influence behavior.

Reaction formation

Behaving in a way opposite to one's unacceptable impulses.

Ego defense mechanisms

Strategies the ego uses to protect itself from anxiety and conflict.

Regression

Reverting to an earlier stage of development during stress.

Denial

Refusing to accept reality or facts.

Repression

Pushing distressing thoughts into the unconscious.

Displacement

Redirecting emotions from a threatening target to a safer one.

Sublimation

Channeling unacceptable impulses into socially acceptable activities.

Projection

Attributing one's own unacceptable thoughts or feelings to others.

Projective tests

Personality assessments that use ambiguous stimuli to reveal unconscious thoughts (e.g., Rorschach inkblot test).

Preconscious mind

Thoughts that are not currently in awareness but can be brought to consciousness.

Unconscious mind

The part of the mind with thoughts and desires outside of awareness but influencing behavior.

Humanistic psychology

Focuses on personal growth, self-awareness, and free will.

Unconditional regard

Accepting and valuing a person without conditions.

Self-actualizing tendency

The drive to fulfill one's potential and achieve the highest level of human functioning.

Social-cognitive theory

Personality is shaped by interactions between personal factors, behavior, and environment.

Self-esteem

One's overall sense of personal value or worth.

Reciprocal determinism

The idea that behavior, environment, and personal factors all influence each other.

Self-concept

The mental image one has of oneself.

Trait theories

Theories that focus on identifying and measuring enduring personality characteristics.

Self-efficacy

Belief in one's ability to succeed in specific situations.

Big Five theory

Personality is made up of five main traits—openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism.

Agreeableness

A trait characterized by warmth, kindness, and cooperation.

Openness to experience

A trait involving imagination, curiosity, and creativity.

Extraversion

A trait marked by sociability, energy, and assertiveness.

Conscientiousness

A trait reflecting organization, responsibility, and dependability.

Emotional stability

A personality trait describing calmness and emotional control (opposite of neuroticism).

Personality inventories

Standardized questionnaires used to assess personality traits (e.g., MMPI).

Factor analysis

A statistical method used to identify clusters of related traits in personality research.

Drive-reduction theory

Motivation arises from the desire to reduce internal tensions caused by unmet biological needs.

Homeostasis

The body's tendency to maintain a balanced internal state.

Arousal theory

People are motivated to maintain an optimal level of arousal (alertness and stimulation).

Optimal level of arousal

The ideal amount of arousal needed for peak performance.

Yerkes-Dodson Law

Performance increases with arousal to a point, then decreases when arousal becomes too high.