Chapter 1

Canadian Shield

first part of the North American landmass to emerge above sea level

significance of Canadian Shield

Incas

highly advanced South American civilization that occupied present-day Peru until it was conquered by Spanish forces under Francisco Pizarro in 1532. They developed sophisticated agricultural techniques, such as terrace farming, in order to sustain large, complex societies in the unforgiving Andes Mountains.

significance of Incas

Aztecs

Native American empire that controlled present-day Mexico until 1521, when they were conquered by Spanish Hernán Cortés. The Aztecs maintained control over their vast empire through a system of trade and tribute. They came to be known for their advances in mathematics and writing, as well as their use of human sacrifices in religious ceremonies.

significance of Aztecs

nation-states

societies in which political legitimacy and authority overlay a large degree of cultural commonality

significance of nation-states

Cahokia

Mississippian settlement near present-day East St. Louis, home to as many as twenty-five thousand Native Americans

significance of Cahokia

three-sister farming

agricultural system employed by North American Indians as early as 1000 C.E.; maize, beans, and squash were grown together to maximize yields

significance of three-sister farming

caravel

small regular vessel with a high deck and three triangular sails. Caravels could sail more closely into the wind, allowing European sailors to explore the western shores of Africa, previously made inaccessible due to prevailing winds on the homeward journey.

significance of caravel

plantation

large-scale agricultural enterprise growing commercial crops and usually employing coerced or slave labor. European settlers established plantations in Africa, South America, the Caribbean, and the American South.

significance of plantation

Columbian Excahnge

the transfer of goods, crops, and diseases between New and Old World societies after 1492

significance of Columbian Exchange

Treaty of Tordesillas

signed by Spain and Portugal, dividing the territories of the New World. Spain received the bulk of territory in the Americas, compensating Portugal with titles to lands in Africa and Asia.

significance of Treaty of Tordesillas

encomienda

Spanish government’s policy to “commend,” or give, Indians to certain colonists in return for the promise to Christianize them. Part of a broader Spanish effort to subdue Indian tribes in the West Indies and on the North American mainland.

significance of encomienda

noche triste

“sad night,” when the Aztecs attacked Hernán Cortés and his forces in the Aztec capital, Tenochittlán, killing hundreds. Cortés laid siege to the city the following year, precipitating the fall of the Aztec empire and inaugurating three centuries of Spanish rule

significance of noche triste

capitalism

economic system characterized by private property, generally free trade, and open and accessible markets. European colonization of the Americas, and in particular, the discovery of vast bullion deposits, helped bring about Europe’s transition to capitalism

significance of capitalism

mestizos

people of mixed Indian and European heritage, notable in Mexico

significance of mestizos

conquistadores

sixteenth-century Spaniards who fanned out across the Americas, from Colorado to Argentina, eventually conquering the Aztec and Incan empires

significance of conquistadores

Battle of Acoma

fought between Spaniards under Don Juan de Oñate and the Pueblo Indians in present-day New Mexico. Spaniards brutally crushed the Pueblo peoples and established the territory as New Mexico in 1609.

significance of Battle of Acoma

Pueblo Revolt

Pueblo Indian revolt that drove Spanish settlers from New Mexico. The Spanish left behind some 1500 horses that became the ancestors of the horse herds that spread across the continent and transformed the lives of many Plains Indians.

significance of Pueblo Revolt

Black Legend

false notion that Spanish conquerors did little but butcher the Indians and steal their gold in the name of Christ

significance of Black Legend

Ferdinand of Aragon

Isabella of Castile

Christopher Columbus

F

rancisco Coronado

Fr

ancisco Pizarro

Bartolomé de Las Casas

Hernán Cortés

Malinche (Doña Marina)

Moctezuma

Giovanni Caboto (John Cabot)

Robert de La Salle

Father Junipero Serra