04-DEVELOPMENT OF A PERSON- PART 1

human beings

Of all mammals, - are the most immature at birth, requiring the longest period of learning, development and interaction with others before they are self-sufficient. 

complex; longer

In general, the more - an organism’s nervous system is, the - the time required to reach maturity. 

Growth

This refers to quantitative changes – increase in size and structure. 

Growth

Not only does the child become larger physically, but there is also an increase in size and structure of the internal organs and of the brain. As a result of the growth of the brain, the child develops greater capacity for learning, for remembering, and for reasoning. He/she grows mentally as well as physically. 

Development

Refers to the changes which are qualitative in nature. It may be defined as a progressive series or orderly, coherent changes leading toward the goal of maturity. 

Development

The term progressive as it is used here signifies that the changes are directional 

Maturity

Marks the end of growth and development. It is characterized by completion of structural changes and of the attainment of the capacity to function physically and mentally in a manner characteristic of the normal adult. 

Learning

\
Defined in different ways because it stills controversy. 

Behaviorists; Learning

According to -, - is a relatively permanent change in behavior that results from experience. 

cognitive theorists; Learning

For -, - is the process by which organisms make relatively permanent changes in the way they represent the environment because of the experience. These changes influence the organism’s behavior, but do not fully determine it. 

Principles of development

1\. Development is orderly and follows a sequential pattern which is predictable. 

2\. Development is the product of interaction of maturation and learning 

3\. There are individual differences in development 

4\. Development proceeds by stages 

1\. Development is orderly and follows a sequential pattern which is predictable.

Which principle?

The stages that we go through from birth to death are always in the same order. They have never occurred in reverse. Infancy precedes childhood and is followed by adolescence, and adulthood follows adolescence. 

2\. Development is the product of interaction of maturation and learning 

Which principle?

Maturation is a process in which hereditary traits unfold at an appointed time as the individual grows older. These changes that occur because of maturation are more or less the same in all children in all cultures, and they occur practically at the same time in individuals 

2\. Development is the product of interaction of maturation and learning 

\
Which principle?

Learning, on the other hand, is not a mechanical process. It takes place through the effort of the individual, but will learn only when he/she is ready to learn. This means that the essential physical and mental foundations need to be existing before a new ability can be developed from them. Training can produce learning but it will not produce results until the individual has reached the right level of maturation necessary for an activity. 

3\. There are individual differences in development 

Developmental Psychologists aver that a child, after his or her birth will go through the same stages undergone by another child in the same age. 

4\. Development proceeds by stages

Which principle?

There are definite changes of Development and each stage has its own characteristic features which distinguishes it from another stage. 

4\. Development proceeds by stages

Which principle?

Developmental tasks – particular tasks should precede another. 

Heredity or nature

Environment or nurture

Developmental Psychologists tells us that development is caused by two very broad interacting factors: 

Heredity

This is the transmission of traits from parents to offspring through the genes.

Heredity

This biological transmission of traits from one generation to another plays an important role in the determination of traits that we consider as human and non-human. 

Heredity

The biological structures, we inherit at the same time, make our behavior possible. It is also this biological structures that limit our behavior. 

Fertilization

Zygote

Chromosomes

DNA

Hereditary endowment

Fertilization; spermatozoa; oocyte; zygote; cell differentiation; embryo development

the union of two haploid gametes, the - and the -, here to referred to as egg, to restore the diploid state, form a - through the process of egg activation, and commence a series of mitotic divisions that results in - and -

Zygote; egg, or ovum; sperm

fertilized egg cell that results from the union of a female gamete (-) with a male gamete (-). 

Chromosomes

are thread-like structures located inside the nucleus of animal and plant cells. 

chromosome; deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA); 46 chromosomes; 22 paired chromosomes; two sex chromosomes

Each - is made of protein and a single molecule of -. Humans typically have - chromosomes in each cell of their body, made up of - paired chromosomes and - sex chromosomes. 

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)

is a molecule composed of two polynucleotide chains that coil around each other to form a double helix carrying genetic instructions for the development, functioning, growth and reproduction of all known organisms and many viruses. 

The most common interaction between alleles is a dominant/recessive relationship. 

dominant; recessive; Eye color and blood groups

An allele of a gene is said to be - when it effectively overrules the other (-) allele. - are both examples of dominant/recessive gene relationships. 

dominant; brown; recessive; blue

The allele for brown eyes (B) is - over the allele for blue eyes (b). So, if you have one allele for brown eyes and one allele for blue eyes (Bb), your eyes will be -. 

However, if both alleles are for the - trait (in this case, blue eyes, bb) you will inherit - eyes. 

A, B and O

For blood groups, the alleles are -

dominant; blood group A

The A allele is - over the O allele. So, a person with one A allele and one O allele (AO) has -. 

Genotype; phenotype

The combination of alleles that you have is called - (e.g. AO). The observable trait that you have (e.g. blood group A) is called -

Identical twins; fraternal; dizygotic

\- share all of their genes and are always of the same sex. In contrast, -, or -, twins result from the fertilization of two separate eggs during the same pregnancy. 

Fraternal twins

They share half of their genes, just like any other siblings. - can be of the same or different sexes. 

Human development

\- refers to the physical, cognitive, and psychosocial development of humans throughout the lifespan 

Physical development

Cognitive development

Psychosocial development

What types of development are involved in each of these three domains, or areas, of life? 

Physical development

involves growth and changes in the body and brain, the senses, motor skills, and health and wellness 

Cognitive development

involves learning, attention, memory, language, thinking, reasoning, and creativity. 

Psychosocial development

involves emotions, personality, and social relationships 

Prenatal period

Childhood

Adolescence

Adulthood

Stages of human development

Conception; Prenatal period

\- occurs and development begins. 

Which stage of development?

germinal, embryonic, and fetal periods

There are three stages of prenatal development:

Prenatal period

All of the major structures of the body are forming and the health of the mother is of primary concern 

Which stage of development?

Prenatal period

There are various approaches to labor, delivery, and childbirth, with potential complications of pregnancy and delivery, as well as risks and complications with newborns, but also advances in tests, technology, and medicine 

Which stage of development?

nature; nurture; Prenatal period

The influences of - (e.g., genetics) and - (e.g., nutrition and teratogens, which are environmental factors during pregnancy that can lead to birth defects) are evident. 

Which stage of development

Evolutionary psychology; Prenatal period

\-, along with studies of twins and adoptions, help us understand the interplay of factors and the relative influences of nature and nurture on human development. 

Which stage of development?

germinal stage

The first two weeks after conception are known as the *-*

embryonic period

the third through the eighth week is known as the *-*

fetal period

the time from the ninth week until birth is known as -

Early childhood; preschool years

*-* is also referred to as the -, consisting of the years that follow toddlerhood and precede formal schooling, roughly from around ages 2 to 5 or 6. 

Early childhood

As a preschooler, the child is busy learning language (with amazing growth in vocabulary), is gaining a sense of self and greater independence, and is beginning to learn the workings of the physical world. 

Which stage of development?

Early childhood

This knowledge does not come quickly, however, and preschoolers may initially have interesting conceptions of size, time, space and distance, such as demonstrating how long something will take by holding out their two index fingers several inches apart

Which stage of development?

Early childhood

A toddler’s fierce determination to do something may give way to a four-year-old’s sense of guilt for doing something that brings the disapproval of others. 

Which stage of development?

middle childhood

The ages of 6-11 comprise *-* and much of what children experience at this age is connected to their involvement in the early grades of school. 

Middle childhood

Now the world becomes one of learning and testing new academic skills and assessing one’s abilities and accomplishments by making comparisons between self and others. 

Which stage of development?

Middle childhood

Schools participate in this process by comparing students and making these comparisons public through team sports, test scores, and other forms of recognition 

Which stage of development?

Middle childhood

The brain reaches its adult size around age seven, but it continues to develop. Growth rates slow down and children are able to refine their motor skills at this point in life. 

Which stage of development?

Middle childhood

Children also begin to learn about social relationships beyond the family through interaction with friends and fellow students; same-sex friendships are particularly salient during this period. 

Which stage of development?

Adolescence; PUBERT

\- is a period of dramatic physical change marked by an overall physical growth spurt and sexual maturation, known as *-*; timing may vary by gender, cohort, and culture. 

Adolescence

It is also a time of cognitive change as the - begins to think of new possibilities and to consider abstract concepts such as love, fear, and freedom. 

Adolescence

Ironically, they have a sense of invincibility that puts them at greater risk of dying from accidents or contracting sexually transmitted infections that can have lifelong consequences. 

Adolescence

Research on brain development helps us understand risk-taking and impulsive behavior. A major developmental task involves establishing one’s own identity. They typically struggle to become more independent from their parents. 

Which stage of development?

Adolescence

Peers become more important, as they strive for a sense of belonging and acceptance; mixed-sex peer groups become more common. New roles and responsibilities are explored, which may involve dating, driving, taking on a part-time job, and planning for future academics

Which stage of development?

early adulthood

Late teens, twenties, and thirties are often thought of as *-* (students who are in their mid to late 30s may love to hear that they are young adults!) 

Early adulthood

It is a time when we are at our physiological peak but are most at risk for involvement in violent crimes and substance abuse. 

Early adulthood

It is a time of focusing on the future and putting a lot of energy into making choices that will help one earn the status of a full adult in the eyes of others. 

Early adulthood

Love and work are the primary concerns at this stage of life. In recent decades, it has been noted (in the U.S. and other developed countries) that young adults are taking longer to “grow up.” They are waiting longer to move out of their parents’ homes, finish their formal education, take on work/careers, get married, and have children. 

Jeffrey Arnett; emerging adulthood

One psychologist, - , has proposed that there is a new stage of development after adolescence and before early adulthood, called “-,” from 18 to 25 (or even 29) when individuals are still exploring their identities and don’t quite feel like adults yet. 

Early adulthood

Cohort, culture, time in history, the economy, and socioeconomic status may be key factors in when youth take on adult roles. 

middle adulthood

The late thirties (or age 40) through the mid-60s are referred to as *-*

Middle adulthood

This is a period in which physiological aging that began earlier becomes more noticeable and a period at which many people are at their peak of productivity in love and work. 

Middle adulthood

It may be a period of gaining expertise in certain fields and being able to understand problems and find solutions with greater efficiency than before. It can also be a time of becoming more realistic about possibilities in life; of recognizing the difference between what is possible and what is likely 

sandwich generation; middle-aged adults

Referred to as the -, - may be in the middle of taking care of their children and also taking care of their aging parents 

middle-aged adults; mid-life crisis

While caring about others and the future, - may also be questioning their own mortality, goals, and commitments, though not necessarily experiencing a “-.” 

late adulthood

This period of the lifespan, *-* , has increased in the last 100 years, particularly in industrialized countries, as average life expectancy has increased. 

Late adulthood; young old; old old; oldest old

\- covers a wide age range with a lot of variation, so it is helpful to divide it into categories such as the “-” (65-74 years old), “-” (75-84 years old), and “-” (85+ years old). 

young old

The - are similar to middle-aged adults; possibly still working, married, relatively healthy, and active

old old; oldest old

The - have some health problems and challenges with daily living activities; the - are often frail and in need of long term care 

optimal aging; normal aging; impaired aging

However, many factors are involved and a better way to appreciate the diversity of older adults is to go beyond chronological age and examine whether a person is experiencing -, - (in which the changes are similar to most of those of the same age), or - (referring to someone who has more physical challenge and disease than others of the same age). 

Jean Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development

Sigmund Freud’s Psychosexual Stages of Development

Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages of Development

Lawrence Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development

Theoretical Perspectives of Human Behavior Development

Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development

\- suggests that children move through four different stages of mental development. 

Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development

His theory focuses not only on understanding how children acquire knowledge, but also on understanding the nature of intelligence 

The Sensorimotor Stage (Birth to 2 years)

The Preoperational Stage (2 to 7 years)

The Concrete Operational Stage (7 to 11 years)

The Formal Operational Stage (12 and up)

Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development stages:

The Sensorimotor Stage (Birth to 2 years)

The infant knows the world through their movements and sensations

The Sensorimotor Stage (Birth to 2 years)

Children learn about the world through basic actions such as sucking, grasping, looking, and listening

The Sensorimotor Stage (Birth to 2 years)

Infants learn that things continue to exist even though they cannot be seen (object permanence)

The Sensorimotor Stage (Birth to 2 years)

They are separate beings from people and objects around them

The Sensorimotor Stage (Birth to 2 years)

They realize that their actions can cause things to happen in the world around them

The Preoperational Stage (2 to 7 years)

Children begin to think symbolically and learn to use words and pictures to represent objects

The Preoperational Stage (2 to 7 years)

Children at this stage tend to be egocentric and struggle to see things from the perspective of others

The Preoperational Stage (2 to 7 years)

While they are getting better with language and thinking, they still tend to think about things in very concrete terms

The Concrete Operational Stage (7 to 11 years)

During this stage, children begin to thinking logically about concrete events

The Concrete Operational Stage (7 to 11 years)

They begin to understand the concept of observation; that the amount of liquid in a short, wide cup is equal to that in a tall, skinny glass

The Concrete Operational Stage (7 to 11 years)

Their thinking becomes more logical and organized but still very concrete

The Concrete Operational Stage (7 to 11 years)

Children begin using inductive logic

The Formal Operational Stage (12 and up)

At this stage, the adolescent or young adult begins to think abstractly and reason about hypothetical problems

The Formal Operational Stage (12 and up)

Abstract thought emerges

The Formal Operational Stage (12 and up)

Teens begin to think more about moral, philosophical, ethical, social, and political issues that require theoretical and abstract reasoning

The Formal Operational Stage (12 and up)

Begin to use deductive logic