SOSC Exam 2: Diversity, Decisions, Motivation and Leadership (power not included)

Motivation

The internal or external forces that energize

Work Motivation

Study of the forces that cause people to behave in work-related ways including direction intensity and persistence.

Content Theories

Theories focused on what motivates individuals by identifying their needs (e.g. Maslow Herzberg McClelland).

Process Theories

Theories that explain how motivation occurs focusing on thought processes and perception (e.g. Expectancy Equity Goal Setting).

Primary Needs

Innate biological needs such as food water shelter and sleep.

Secondary Needs

Learned psychological needs such as power affiliation and achievement.

Manifest Needs

Needs that are reflected in visible behaviors and actions.

Latent Needs

Needs that exist but are not currently expressed in behavior.

McClelland’s Learned Needs Theory

Theory proposing three key learned needs: need for achievement (nAch) need for power (nPow) and need for affiliation (nAff).

Need for Achievement (nAch)

Desire to excel at difficult tasks prefer personal responsibility seek feedback and choose moderate risks.

Need for Power (nPow)

Desire to influence or control others can be personal (self-focused) or social (organizational goal-focused).

Need for Affiliation (nAff)

Desire for friendly close interpersonal relationships and approval from others.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

A five-level model of human needs: physiological safety love/belonging esteem and self-actualization.

Physiological Needs

Lowest level of Maslow such as food water sleep shelter.

Safety Needs

Maslow’s second level including job security health stability and physical safety.

Love and Belonging Needs

Maslow’s third level including friendship family and social connections.

Esteem Needs

Maslow’s fourth level including respect recognition achievement and status.

Self-Actualization

Top level of Maslow achieving personal growth fulfilling potential and creativity.

ERG Theory (Alderfer)

Condenses Maslow’s five levels into three: Existence Relatedness Growth allows movement up and down levels.

Existence Needs

Basic material needs for survival similar to physiological and safety needs.

Relatedness Needs

Social and relationship needs similar to belongingness in Maslow’s theory.

Growth Needs

Personal development self-fulfillment and competence similar to self-actualization and esteem.

Frustration-Regression Principle

In ERG theory if higher-level needs are not met individuals may regress to lower-level needs.

Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory

Distinguishes between hygiene factors that prevent dissatisfaction and motivators that create satisfaction.

Hygiene Factors

Job factors that prevent dissatisfaction but do not create motivation (salary policies working conditions).

Motivators (Herzberg)

Factors that increase job satisfaction such as achievement recognition responsibility and growth.

Equity Theory

Theory stating people compare input-output ratios to others and feel distress from perceived inequity.

Inputs (Equity Theory)

What employees put into their work such as time effort experience skills.

Outputs (Equity Theory)

Rewards employees receive from work such as pay recognition promotions.

Perceived Inequity

Feeling underrewarded or overrewarded compared to others leading to actions to restore fairness.

Expectancy Theory

Motivation = Expectancy × Instrumentality × Valence; effort leads to performance performance leads to outcomes valued by the individual.

Expectancy (E→P)

Belief that effort will lead to successful performance.

Instrumentality (P→O)

Belief that good performance will lead to desired rewards or outcomes.

Valence

The value or importance an individual places on a reward.

Goal Setting Theory

Theory stating that specific challenging and accepted goals lead to higher performance.

SMART Goals

Goals that are Specific Measurable Achievable Relevant and Time-bound.

Management by Objectives (MBO)

A collaborative process where managers and employees set goals evaluate progress and reward achievement.

Reinforcement Theory

Behavior is shaped by its consequences positive outcomes strengthen behavior negative outcomes weaken it.

Positive Reinforcement

Adding a desirable outcome after behavior to increase its frequency (praise bonus).

Negative Reinforcement

Removing an unpleasant stimulus when desired behavior occurs to increase its frequency.

Punishment

Applying an unpleasant outcome to decrease undesired behavior.

Extinction

Withholding reinforcement to reduce unwanted behavior by ignoring it.

Fixed Interval Schedule

Reinforcement provided after a fixed amount of time (e.g. monthly paycheck).

Variable Interval Schedule

Reinforcement provided at unpredictable time intervals.

Fixed Ratio Schedule

Reinforcement after a set number of responses (e.g. pay per unit produced).

Variable Ratio Schedule

Reinforcement after an unpredictable number of responses (e.g. slot machines).

Profit Sharing

Company program where employees receive a portion of organizational profits.

Gainsharing

System where employees receive bonuses for improvements in productivity or cost reduction.

ESOP (Employee Stock Ownership Plan)

Plan that gives employees company stock to increase involvement and motivation.

Symbolic Rewards

Non-monetary rewards like recognition awards or preferred parking spots to acknowledge performance.

Leadership

The process of influencing others to achieve group or organizational goals.

Formal Leadership

Leadership based on official position or authority within an organization.

Informal Leadership

Leadership that arises naturally through influence not formal position.

Trait Theory of Leadership

Theory that leaders are born with certain traits such as intelligence confidence and integrity.

Key Leadership Traits

Drive honesty integrity self-confidence intelligence knowledge of the business.

Behavioral Leadership Theory

Focuses on what leaders do their behaviors can be learned and developed.

Ohio State Studies

Identified two key leader behaviors: consideration (people-oriented) and initiating structure (task-oriented).

Consideration Behavior

Leader behavior that shows concern respect and support for followers.

Initiating Structure Behavior

Leader behavior that organizes work defines roles and sets clear goals.

Michigan Leadership Studies

Identified employee-centered leadership and production-centered leadership.

Employee-Centered Leadership

Leadership focused on employee needs relationships and support.

Production-Centered Leadership

Leadership focused on task accomplishment efficiency and productivity.

Blake and Mouton Leadership Grid

A framework with concern for people and concern for production identifying five leadership styles.

Impoverished Management (1

1)

Country Club Management (1

9)

Authority-Compliance (9

1)

Middle-of-the-Road (5

5)

Team Management (9

9)

Contingency Theory of Leadership

Suggests leadership effectiveness depends on the match between style and the situation.

Fiedler's Contingency Model

Leadership effectiveness depends on leader’s style and situational control (leader-member relations task structure position power).

Least Preferred Co-worker (LPC) Scale

A scale used by Fiedler to measure leadership style low LPC = task-oriented high LPC = relationship-oriented.

Situational Favorableness

How much control and influence a leader has determined by relationships task structure and power.

Path-Goal Theory (House)

Leaders motivate followers by clarifying goals removing obstacles and offering support or rewards.

Directive Leadership

Leader provides clear expectations rules and guidance.

Supportive Leadership

Leader is approachable friendly and shows concern for followers’ well-being.

Participative Leadership

Leader involves followers in decision-making and seeks their suggestions.

Achievement-Oriented Leadership

Leader sets challenging goals expects high performance and expresses confidence.

Transactional Leadership

Leadership based on exchanges rewards for performance and punishment for failure.

Transformational Leadership

Leadership that inspires followers to transcend self-interest through vision inspiration and personal influence.

Four I's of Transformational Leadership

Idealized influence inspirational motivation intellectual stimulation individualized consideration.

Charismatic Leadership

Leadership style where leaders inspire and attract followers through vision confidence and personal charm.

Laissez-Faire Leadership

Leader takes a hands-off approach provides little guidance or support.

Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) Theory

Focuses on the unique relationships leaders develop with each follower in-group vs out-group.

In-Group Members (LMX)

Followers trusted by leader receive more support responsibility and communication.

Out-Group Members (LMX)

Followers with lower-quality relationships receive less support and fewer opportunities.

Servant Leadership

Leadership philosophy focused on serving others empowering employees and putting follower needs first.

Authentic Leadership

Leadership based on self-awareness transparency ethics and genuine relationships.

Culture and Leadership

Leadership expectations vary across cultures individualist cultures value autonomy collectivist cultures value harmony and loyalty.

Power Distance

Extent to which less powerful members accept unequal distribution of power.

Individualism vs Collectivism

Individualism emphasizes personal goals collectivism emphasizes group harmony and loyalty.

Diversity

The range of differences among people including race gender age religion sexual orientation and more.

Inclusion

The extent to which diverse individuals feel welcomed respected and valued in an organization.

Surface-Level Diversity

Visible characteristics such as race gender age physical ability.

Deep-Level Diversity

Non-visible characteristics such as beliefs values religion attitudes personality.

Hidden Diversity

Deep-level differences that may be concealed such as sexual orientation religion mental illness.

Social Identity Theory

People classify themselves and others into groups which shapes behavior and leads to in-group favoritism.

In-Group

Group to which a person feels they belong often viewed positively.

Out-Group

Group perceived as different leading to bias or negative stereotypes.

Out-Group Homogeneity Effect

Perceiving members of the out-group as more similar to each other than they actually are.

Out-Group Derogation

Tendency to view the out-group as inferior which boosts in-group self-esteem.