APES S1 Review

Environmental Studies

Examines interactions among human and natural systems, involving both abiotic (non-living) and biotic (living) factors.

Five Global-Scale Environmental Indicators

Biodiversity, food production, average global surface temperature & CO2 levels, human population, and resource depletion.

Biodiversity and Genetic Diversity

Higher genetic diversity enables populations to better respond to environmental changes.

Ecological Footprint

The amount of land required to sustain human needs.

Sustainability

Balancing human well-being with resource management for future generations; measured by ecological footprint.

Scientific Method Key Terms

Hypothesis, null hypothesis, control group, independent variable, dependent variable, accuracy, precision, and theory.

Challenges of Environmental Science

No control planet and balancing human well-being with environmental goals.

Covalent Bond

Electron sharing between atoms.

Ionic Bond

Electron transfer between atoms.

Hydrogen Bond

Weak attraction between molecules.

pH Scale

A measure of acidity or alkalinity; below 7 is acidic, above 7 is basic.

Law of Conservation of Matter

Matter cannot be created or destroyed, only transformed.

First Law of Thermodynamics

Energy cannot be created or destroyed.

Positive Feedback Loop

Amplifies changes within a system.

Negative Feedback Loop

Resists changes within a system.

Ecosystem

A community of living organisms interacting with non-living elements.

Photosynthesis Equation

6CO2 + 6H2O + sunlight → C6H12O6 + 6O2.

GPP vs NPP

GPP is total captured energy; NPP is energy available after respiration.

Water Cycle

Includes processes like evaporation, precipitation, and infiltration.

Carbon Cycle

Involves the exchange of carbon between organisms and the atmosphere.

Nitrogen Cycle

Involves the conversion of nitrogen into forms usable by organisms.

Phosphorus Cycle

Phosphorus is released slowly from rocks through weathering.

Calcium, Magnesium, and Potassium Importance

Regulate cell processes and dissolve in water as ions.

Ecosystem Resistance

How much a disturbance affects energy or matter flow.

Ecosystem Resilience

How quickly an ecosystem returns to its original state.

Intermediate Disturbance Hypothesis

Suggests highest biodiversity occurs at intermediate levels of disturbance.

Weather vs Climate

Weather is short-term; climate is long-term average conditions.

Layers of the Atmosphere

Troposphere, Stratosphere, Mesosphere, Thermosphere, Exosphere.

Forces Driving Global Circulation Patterns

Include unequal heating, convection currents, and Earth's tilt.

Coriolis Effect

Causes deflection of objects' paths due to Earth's rotation.

Rain Shadow Effect

Moist air rises over mountains, cools, and causes dry conditions on leeward side.

Major Terrestrial Biomes

Tundra, Temperate Rainforest, Temperate Seasonal Forest, Grassland, Tropical Rainforest, Savanna, Desert, Taiga.

Major Aquatic Biomes

Freshwater (e.g., rivers, lakes) and Marine (e.g., coral reefs, open ocean).

Biodiversity Measurement

Indicates environmental health by counting the number of species in an area.

Processes Causing Genetic Diversity

Random mutations and recombination.

Natural Selection vs Artificial Selection

Natural: traits aiding survival; Artificial: human-bred traits.

Four Processes of Random Evolution

Mutation, gene flow, bottleneck effect, founder effect.

Factors Affecting Evolution Pace

Environmental changes, genetic variation, population size, and generation time.

Allopatric vs Sympatric Speciation

Allopatric: geographic isolation; Sympatric: without geographical barriers.

Fundamental vs Realized Niche

Fundamental is ideal conditions; realized is actual living conditions.

Environmental Change Impact on Species

Alters distributions and can cause extinctions.

Species Richness vs Evenness

Richness: number of species; Evenness: distribution among species.

Earth's Formation and Age

Earth formed 4.6 billion years ago, consisting mainly of iron, silica, and gases.

Theory of Plate Tectonics

Earth's lithosphere consists of moving plates affecting environmental systems.

Rock Cycle

Formation, alteration, and destruction of rocks through natural processes.

Weathering vs Erosion

Weathering breaks rocks; erosion moves fragments, contributing to soil formation.

Soil Formation and Horizons

Soil forms from minerals and organic materials; horizons include O, A, E, B, C, and bedrock.

Major Types of Mining and Impacts

Strip, open-pit, mountaintop removal, etc., causing habitat destruction and pollution.

Confined vs Unconfined Aquifers

Confined: surrounded by impermeable layers; Unconfined: porous rock covered by soil.

Precipitation Changes and Aquifers

High precipitation refills aquifers; low precipitation depletes them.

Levees, Dikes, and Dams

Reduce flood risks but can disrupt ecosystems and require resources.

Desalination Methods

Distillation boils water; reverse osmosis filters water.

Irrigation Methods

Flood, spray, furrow, and drip irrigation have varying efficiencies.

Human Uses of Water

Agriculture (70%), industry (20%), household (10%).

Human Wastewater Issues

Causes dead zones, eutrophication, and spreads disease.

Dissolved Oxygen Variations

Oxygen-demanding waste increases BOD, reducing available oxygen.

Wastewater Treatment Technologies

Septic systems filter small-scale nature; sewage treatment plants handle urban waste.

Acid Deposition and Mine Drainage

Result from fossil fuel burning leading to acid rain.

Oil Pollution Sources

Includes spills, offshore drilling, and natural seeps; remediation involves containment.

Sediment Pollution

Leads to cloudy water, reduced productivity, and clogged gills.

Thermal Pollution

Cooling water from power plants disrupts oxygen levels and can harm organisms.

Clean Water Act Impact

Protects aquatic life and sets water quality standards.

Population Characteristics Impact on Ecosystems

Size, density, distribution, sex ratio, and age structure affect dynamics.

Density-Dependent vs Density-Independent Factors

Dependent factors include food and shelter; independent factors include natural disasters.

Exponential Population Growth

Rapid growth with unlimited resources, forming a J-shaped curve.

Logistic Growth

Growth slows as populations approach carrying capacity, forming an S-shaped curve.

K-Selected vs R-Selected Species

K-selected: few offspring, larger size; R-selected: many offspring, smaller size.

Types of Survivorship Curves

Type I: high survival until old age; Type II: constant survival; Type III: low early survival.