Social Psych - Perception and Attributions

What are central and peripheral traits in impression formation?

1. central traits strongly influence impressions (warm, cold)

2. peripheral traits have less impact (polite, blunt)

What did Asch’s early research on impression formation demonstrate?

1. people form immediate holistic impressions based on adjectives

2. some traits carry more weight than others (c/p)

What sensory or physical patterns are associated with personality impressions?

1. large eyes, small chins = warm, less dominant

2. high pitch voice = extraverted

3. posture and walking patterns

What is the self-fulfilling prophecy in social perception?

we perceive others influencing how we behave to them, the way we behave causes them to confirm our expectation

How did Asch’s study test central vs. peripheral traits?

1. participants heard identical lists of adjectives with one difference

2. those who heard warm formed more positive impressions (central)

3. polite/blunt substitutions didnt result in strong changes (peripheral)

Models of impression formation

1. cognitive algebra model

2. configural model

3. attribution theory

4. correspondent inference theory

5. covariation theory

What is the Cognitive Algebra Model of impression formation?

we average separate pieces of information about a person to form an overall impression

What is the Configural Model of impression formation?

1. we infer deeper traits from surface cues

2. impressions depend on interactions between traits, not just averaging

What is attribution theory?

1. explains how people infer causes of actions

2. focus on dispositional attributions over situational ones

What is self-attribution according to Heider's Attribution Theory?

when the actor and the observer are the same (explaining own behavior)

Why are dispositions important in Attribution theory?

1. integrate disorganized info about others

2. predict future behavior

What is Correspondent Inference Theory?

we infer intentions and dispositions by analyzing why the enacted behavior was chosen from other options

What are non-common effects in Correspondent Inference Theory?

1. features of the chosen action that are unique compared to alternatives

2. help infer cause

Limitations of correspondent inference theory

1. cant explain impulsive, habitual, or emotional behavior

2. assumes behavior is deliberate and intentional

Correspondence bias (fundamental attribution error)

tendency to overestimate dispositional and underestimate situational causes of others behavior

What is covariation theory?

1. we infer the cause of behavior by looking at factors that co-occur with it

2. consensus, consistency, and distinctiveness

What does 'consensus' mean in Covariation Theory?

whether others behave similarly in the same situation

Distinctiveness

whether the behavior is specific to one object/situation or occurs across many

Consistency

whether the person behaves the same way over time in the same situation

Attribution when consensus low, consistency high, distinctiveness low

person

Attribution when consensus low, consistency low, distinctiveness high

context (situation)

Attribution when consensus high, consistency high, distinctiveness high

entity (object acted upon)

Attribution when consensus low, consistency high, distinctiveness lowhigh

person-entity interaction (unique relationship)

Limitation of covariation theory

doesnt account for person-context interaction or habitual/emotional behavior

Why is the covariation approach problematic in real world causal inference

we often dont have full CCD

What is discounting principle in attribution?

when a strong, obvious cause is present, we discount the influence of other possible causes

What is the augmenting principle in attribution?

when there is a strong reason to not expect an outcome but it happens we attribute it to a powerful cause

What does Kelley’s causal theory suggest about how people use covariation data?

we use covariation data when available but often rely on shortcuts when not

What does the abnormal focus model suggest?

people make causal inferences by comparing actual and anticipated events

What limitation of covariation theory does Cheng address?

covariation doesnt differentiate correlation vs causation

What does Cheng’s causal power theory propose?

we infer causes based on unobservable causal powers and estimate causal strength using probabilistic contrast

What is probabilistic contrast in causal inference?

compares probability of effect when potential cause is present vs absent

Weiner – how do attributions shape motivation

attributions for success/failure shape future expectations, motivation, and emotions

3 key dimensions of attribution in achievement

1. locus (internal/external)

2. stability (stable/unstable)

3. controllability (controllable/uncontrollable)

How does praise influence future behavior?

fosters growth mindset

Fixed vs Growth mindset

1. fixed: internal, stable, uncontrollable traits, less adaptive

2. growth: controlable, unstable, more resilience and improvement

Learned helplessness theory

if we dont think actions lead to outcomes we become depressed

Attributional style common in depression

internal, stable, global attributions for negative events

Misattribution theories idea

emotion depends on interpretation of arousal

5 Steps to Depression according to the misattribution model

1. objective noncontingency

2. perceived noncontingency

3. attribution

4. expectation of noncontingency

5. helplessness

William James theory of emotion

emotions are a result of physiological reaction

Schachter two factor theory of emotion

emotion = arousal + interpretation

Correspondence bias

we attribute others behavior more to dispositional factors

Why does the corespondence bias happen?

1. situational factors often invisible

2. expectations distort perception 

3. people dont correct first impressions

Culture and correspondence bias

less in collectivism

Actor-observer difference

we explain our own behavior situationally but explain others dispositionally

Why does actor-observer difference occur?

1. actors have more info about situation

2. observers focus on person not context

3. language can shape bias

When is actor observer difference strongest?

when asked to explain negative behavior in individual focused ways

Self serving attributional bias

we attribute success to internal factors and failure to external ones