PSY 220: Research Design and Analysis Test 1

Describe the 3 traditional methods of acquiring knowledge.

1. authority- a basis for acceptance of information because it is acquired from a highly respected source (authority figures like professors). It is very efficient, but it is possible for different authority figures to disagree, be wrong, or vary (in terms of knowledge).

2. Rationalism- the acquisition of knowledge through reasoning. CON: 2 people can reach different conclusions

3. Empiricism- the acquisition of knowledge through experience. CON: people can interpret experiences differently.

why is understanding research important?

so that you gain an understanding of the current state of knowledge about a selected topic.

Explain the assumptions of science.

- there is uniformity or regularity in nature (patterns. EX: high stress and small amounts of sleep leads to irritability)

-probabilistic causes (a weaker form of determinism that indicates regularities that usually but not always occur; "how probable is it")

-reality in nature (the assumption that the things we see, hear, feel, smell, and taste are real)

-discoverability (the assumption that is possible to discover the regularities that exist in nature)

What is determinism?

the belief that mental processes and behaviors are fully caused by prior natural factors

What is probabilistic cause?

a weaker form of determinism that indicates regularities that usually but not always occur

what is the difference between induction and deduction?

Induction is a reasoning process that involves going from the specific to the general, while deduction is a reasoning process that involves going from the general to the specific

Explain the logic of discovery

the inductive or discovery part of the scientific process

explain the logic of justification.

the deductive or theory-testing part of the scientific process

Describe control

1. manipulation of antecedent conditions to produce a change in mental processes and behavior.

2. eliminating the influence of extraneous variables

3. the group that does not receive the active ingredient believed to produce the effect

describe operational definitions and give a good example.

It is a clear concise detailed definition of a measure.

An example would be Height.

describe empirical

research based on data

describe evidence not proof

Science does not provide full or final proof, it does provide EVIDENCE that varies from weak to strong.

describe replication

the reproduction of the results of a study in a new study

why are control, operational definitions, empirical, evidence not proof, and replication important for scientific research?

these ensure that the research has been done scientifically

why are uncontrolled extraneous variables a problem?

if left uncontrolled, they can lead to inaccurate conclusions about the realtionship between IVs and DVs

when we talk about control ( e.g., control group) in an experiment, what do we mean?

Control means that we are controlling the variable in the study.

What is a theory?

a statement or group of statements that explain "how" and "why" some part of the world works and provide predictions about the world to be empirically tested

describe and differentiate the objectives of scientific research (in order)?

1. Description: requires that a phenomenon be accurately portrayed

2. Explanation: requires knowledge of how and why a phenomenon operates, including its causes and the conditions under which the operates

3. Prediction: the ability to anticipate the occurrence of an event

4. Control or Influence: manipulation of the conditions that cause a phenomenon in order to bring about desired outcomes. It requires the knowledge of the causes or antecedent conditions of a phenomenon

what is control as an objective of science?

Placebo

Describe the placebo effect

when a person's physical or mental health appears to improve after taking a placebo " dummy treatment\drug"

explain Popper's view of falsificationism

a theory to be considered scientific it must be able to be tested and conceivably proven false

Describe meta-analysis

a quantitative technique for describing the relationship between variables across multiple research studies

What is pseudoscience, and what are the common strategies used in pseudoscience?

Means 'false science.' It is a field of study where researchers claim to be scientific in their research and adopt some of the procedures of science, but fail to fulfill the criteria effectively.

Strategies:

-creating new hypotheses in order to explain away negative findings

-exclusive use of confirmation and reinterpretation of negative findings as supporting the claim

-absences of self-correction through continual and rigorous testing of the claim

-reversed burden of proof (i.e. stating the the onus of proof is on the critics)

-over reliance on testimonials and anecdotal evidence supporting a claim

-use of ambiguous or confusing language to make a claim sound as if it has survived scientific scrutiny

-absence of any connection to other disciplines that study issues related to the claim

extraneous variable

Compete with the independent variable in explaining the change in the dependent variable. We want to. Rule these out!

independent variable

Cause- this variable will affect the dependent variable. The independent variable is the manipulated variable in experimental research. Called the predictor variable in non-experimental research.

dependent variable

Effect- changes in the independent variable will cause this outcome variable to change

mediating variable

a variable that helps explain the relationship between two other variables. Process/explanatory variable that is in a casual chain where the independent variable causes changes in the mediating variable which causes changes in the dependent variable.

moderating variable

variable that changes the nature of the relationship between two other variables; qualifies the relationship of the IV to the DV. (EX: if something in a experiment works for males but not females the moderating variable is gender.)

describe categorical and quantitative variables

Categorical: any variable where the data represent groups

Quantitative: any variables where the data represent amounts ( Height, weight, age)

what is a variable?

something that can be changed or altered

what is a constant?

A value that remains the same

what are the 3 criteria for determining cause and effect?

1. Association

2. Time ordering

3. Non-spuriousness

what are the characteristics of experimental research?

based on manipulation to demonstrate cause and effect relationship

what are the characteristics of non experimental research?

research that lacks manipulation and studies the world as it naturally occurs

why is experimental research better at establishing cause and effect relationships?

systematically manipulating and isolating the independent variable, the researcher can determine with confidence the independent variable's causal effect on the dependent variable.

what are the characteristics of quantitative and qualitative research?

Quantitative: "numerical data" such as rating attractiveness, the number of times a child hits another child, the number of times a rat presses a bar, or scores on a personality test.

Qualitative: " nonnumerical data" such as statements made by a person during a interview, written records, pictures, clothing or observed data.

describe laboratory, field, and internet studies. list advantages of each.

Laboratory: conducted in the controlled environment of an laboratory

advantage: greatest amount of control over the experiment conditions and extraneous variables

Field: conducted in a real life or natural setting

advantage: community psychologist are fond of field experiments

Internet: conducted over the internet

advantage: access to an extremely large population that is diverse both demographically and culturally, access to the groups that were previously inaccessible, ability to bring the experiment to the participant, high statical power by enabling access to large samples and cost savings because the experimenter does not need a lab with the associated cost.

what are the problems that may occur when conducting experiments online?

1. multiple submissions

2. lack of experimental control

3. self selection

4. drop out

explain the 3rd variable problem in correlational research

refers to the fact that 2 variables (A & B) might be correlated not because they are casually related ( as in A ---> B) but, rather, because there is some "3rd variable" producing the relationship, and once you account for the 3rd variable, it becomes clear that A & B are not casually related, they are just correlated. (i.e. occurs when observed relationship between 2 variables is actually due to a confounding extraneous variable.

what can and can't you conclude for correlations?

Can:

1. best method for cause and effect relationship

2. includes an manipulated IV

3. uses control techniques to rule out alternative explantions of the effect

Cant:

1. does not test the effects of nonmanipulated variables

2. artifically ( Not real event)

3. Incomplete: ( missing information)

Describe the 6 types of data collection. include strengths and weaknesses.

1. Test

2. Questionnares

3. Interviews

strength: face to face, one on one questions

4. Focus Groups

weakness: heard to keep everyone on topic\ talking all at once

5. Observation

strength: multiple people observing

6. Existing or Secondary data

strength: huge data set

weakness: not built for your research question

describe the different sources of research ideas?

- Books

- Journals

-Electronic Data books

- internet resources

- Regional and national psychological assocation

why do we need diversity in research ideas?

Since it will show different experiences

when reviewing literature-what database should you use for psychological abstracts and articles?

PsycINFO

what are the purposes for reviewing literature?

1. Identify if the topic has been researched

2. Provide design ideas

3. Identify methodological problems

4. identify special needs in terms of research participants or equipment

5. provide information for the research report

what should you do to begin searching for abstracts and articles?

If not using a library - what web browser can be useful for academic research?

google scholar

why should you be cautious about information obtained on the World Wide Web?

there is no controlling authority ensuring the accuracy or credibility of the information

what factors contribute to the feasibility of a study?

time, money, access to participant sample, expertise, ethics

what websites are more trustworthy?

.gov, .edu, .org

What is interlibrary loan, and how does it work?

the cooperative arrangement among libraries that allows books and other materials from one library to be loaned out to a patron from another library.

What is a research question?

any question that asks about the relationship between at least two variables

what is a research hypothesis?

the researchers predictions or a tentative answer to a research question

why should research questions and hypotheses be clear and specific?

helps ensure that the researchers understand and communicate exactly what they plan to study

what do we mean when we say a hypothesis must be testable?

there is a possibility of deciding whether it is true or false based on experimentation by anyone

describe each section of a research article (e.g., abstract, introduction, methods, discussion, references)

Abstract: one paragraph comprehensive summary of the contents of the research.

Introduction: very general introduction to the problem area and then narrow by citing the results of prior work that have been conducted in the area and that issues that you want to investigate.

Methods: tell the reader exactly how they study was conducted

Participants: characteristics such as age, sex, and ethnic or racial group

Materials: what was used

Procedure: exactly how the study was executed

Results: summarize the collected data and analysis performed on the data.

Discussion: interpret and evaluate the results

references: all the cited references used

why do we review the literature and base our new research on what has previously been done?

Because previously research is an a good source of ideas and it can be replicated to determine if the findings are the same as the the other studies. it can also generate new questions.

what are the steps (in order) to follow when creating a research study. describe each step.

what are the three areas of ethical concern?

1. relationship between society and science

2. professional issues

3. treatment of research participants

describe and differentiate the APA's 5 ethical guidelines

1. Beneficence and nonmaleficence

do good and do no harm

2. fidelity and responsibility

researcher in a relationship with the participant. Trusting

3. Intergrity

honest\accuracy communicate with the participant

4. Justice

Equally bear the cost and benefits of the research

5. respect for people's rights and dignity

self determination chose not to be in the study, understanding that we have to clearly give them information that will help them make that decision.

describe the cost-benefit issue and how it relates to IRB decisions

High cost and low benefits= not approved

Low cost and high benefits = approved

high cost and high benefits= difficult decision

low cost and low benefits= difficult decision

Because they have to weight the potential cost to the participant against the potential gain to be from the research project.

Describe the Tuskegee Study

- Study conducted by US public health services, working with the Tuskegee Institute

- Involved 600 black men (some with syphilis, some without)

- Researchers told the men they were being treated for bad blood, but the men did not receive proper treatment to cure their illness

- This study continued for 40 years (1932-1972), withholding treatments form the men, even when penicillin came out as a cure.

What was the Belmont Report?

•The Belmont Report is a report created by the National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research. The Belmont Report summarizes ethical principals and guidelines for research involving human subjects.

what is the most fundamental ethical issue for researchers?

treatment of research participants

what is an IRB and what do they do?

Institutional Review Board

The primary role is to protect human research participants. They review research protocols to assess ethical acceptability of a study.

What IRB decisions are difficult and which ones are easy?

- High cost and low benefit = not approved

- Low cost and high benefit = approved

- High cost and high benefit = difficult decision

- Low cost and low benefit = difficult decision

what are the categories of IRB review?

1. Exempt

2. Expedited

3. Full Board

what type of studies can be "exempt", expedited, and full board review?

Exempt: studies with no risk

Expedited: studies with minimal risk

Full Board Review: studies with more than minimal risk and/ or involving a vulnerable population

what must an IRB proposal explain?

what does minimal risk mean?

the discomfort or harm expected from the participant should not be greater that would be expected in daily life or from physical or psychological tests.

explain informed consent

Written for the appropriate for the reader. Fully Inform and explain what is going on.

explain assent

Assent is for a minor since they can not consent

explain passive consent

where an subject becomes part of the study because of failure to refuse participation

explain confidentiality

They know who you are but do not share the identify or link the identity to their responses

Explain anonymity

No identify information about them

explain active and passive deception

Active Deception: deception by the commission, when the researcher deliberately misleads the participants (give false information or lead to believe that a confederate is a research participant; confederate is a member of the research team)

Passive: deception by omission, which certain information is withheld from the participants (such as not given all the details of the experiment)

what must an informed consent form include?

1. all the aspects of the research

2. the purpose

3. the procedure

4. risks and benefits

5. easily understood by the participant

what it is the IACUC and what does it do?

Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC) and they review the researcher's rationale for the proposed experiment, the conditions of the animal care during the experiment, the rationale for the number of animals that will be used, as well as the researcher's assessment of the pain and suffering that might be involved in the experiment and the approach that the researcher used for alleviating any pain and suffering.

what are the guidelines for using non-human animals in research?

- justification of the research

- personnel

-care and housing of animals

- acquisition of animals

- experimental procedures

-field research

-education use of animals

describe animal rights and animal welfare

Animal Rights: the belief that animals have rights similar to humans and should not have be used in research

Animal Welfare: Improving the laboratory conditions in which animals live and reducing the number of animals used in research

distinguish between dehoaxing and desensitizing

dehoaxing: explaining the deception that was used

Desensitizing: remove any negative affect that the participant may have as an result.

what are the primary ethical concerns when conducting research over the internet?

1. Participant privacy

2. Confidentiality

3. Anonymity

explain plagiarism in detail and how to avoid it

Someone else's words and thoughts as your own and it is academic dishonesty. Cite the source and use quotes when quoting from someones work.

what is research misconduct?

Fabriacting, falsifing, or plagiarizing the proposing, peforming, reviewing, or reporting of research results

how is the order of authorship of a research article decided?

people who have contributed to the intellectual foundations of the study. they decided how they study was done and also figured out the best way to ask and answer research questions.