psychology

cultural learning

behavior passed through culture

adaptive trait

trait promotes reproductive success of an organism

temperament

how individual responds behaviorally/emotionally to stimuli from the world

• forms foundation of personality

environment on behavior

non-genetic influences that influence development, include stress and chemicals

• influences through experience and gene expression

gene expression

genes expressed more or less depending on environment/needs

epigenetics

change to genome that do not involve changing nucleotide content

Palmer grasp reflex

baby grabs onto things when stroking palm

rooting

baby searches for object that brushes against mouth/cheek

sucking

baby automatically makes sucking motion when something grazes mouth

Moro reflex

response to startling things, baby extends limbs and cries

Babinski reflex

bottom of foot stroked, big toe bends up and other toes bend down in babies

0-12 month milestones

crawling, first steps, stranger anxiety, object permanence, babbling, laughing, very simple words

12-24 month milestones

physical independence, terrible 2s, sense of self, boundaries

3+ year old milestones

more complex/mature behavior, furhter language developmenet

critical period

time when experiences “imprint” with long effects for life

• language acquisition depends on environmental input

13-19 years (adolescence)

puberty are biological changes during adolescence

• Menarche = landmarks

adulthood developmental stage

prefrontal cortex neural axons covered with myelin sheets, transmits signals faster

crystallized intelligence

knowledge accumulated over time (does not decrease)

confounding variable

affects both independent and dependent variable, obscures relationship

mediating variable

explains counterintuitive relationships between independent and dependent

moderating variable

variable that modulates intensity of certain relationship

operationalization

process of defining variables in measurable, praticle ways

• established during experimental design, validity may be affected by skillfulness

experimental study

researchers manipulate the world in some way

observational study

researchers analyze pre-existing pratterns of variation to determine possible relationships

quantitative

numerical measurements of variables

qualitative

verbal or open-ended measurements of variables

mixed method study

both quantitative and qualitative measurements are used

negative control

do not receive treatment/intervention, often receive placebo, demonstrates whether intervention actually has an effect

postive control

receive treatment known to induce outcome of interest

• confirm adequacy/competency of experimental procedure, provide ways to see effectiveness

randomizatioin

samples randomly allocated to control/treatment groups

blinding

researchers/participants don’t know which sample is control/experimental

randomized controlled trial (RCT)

participants randomized into groups, non-blind

correlational study

measuring various stats among people, looking for correlations

cross-sectional study

taken at a single point in time, like a snapshot

• opinion poll, surveys, provides limited view of population at certain time

  • correlation is not causation

risk factor

independent variable associated with higher risk of negative outcome

protective factors

independent variable associated with lower risk of negative outcome

cohort studies

group of subjects assembled based on an organizing principle and followed up over time

prospective studies

data gathered moving forward

retrospective study

data gathered from the past

case-control study

compare “cases” (individual with interest) to “controls” (no interest)

• identify differences between 2 groups that might shed light on a phenomenon

case study

report on single case

case series

multiple reports of cases

strength of evidence of experimental design

case study/case series < case-control < cohort study < RCT < systematic reviews < meta-analysis

systematic reviews

critically assess outocme of various studies

meta-analysis

data from multiple studies combined and reanalzyed

NIH’s 7 principle research ethics

1. must have social and clincal value

2. must have scientific validity

3. principle of fair subject selection: participants must be informed/understand risks

4. principle of favorable risk-benefit ratio: risks should be outweighed by benefits

5. principle of independent review: IRB assesses before start of experiment

6. principle of informed consent: participants given a choice to participate

7. principle of respect for potential and enrolled participants

genetic screening

used to identify genetic predictors of various health outcomes

• statistical power is low

correlation

bidirectional/reciprocal relationship

causation

unidirectional relationship, changes in one variable results in change in the other

• control for possible confounders

microsociology

focus on smaller scale interactions

macrosociology

large scale interactions

functionalism

understanding structures and institutions based on their functions

manifest function

intendd functions of an institution

latent function

unintended functions of an institution

latent dysfunction

unintended negative function

conflict theory

sociological theory that focuses on competition for resources between structures/groups

symbolic interactionism

symbolic and requires an interaction, has shared sense of meaning

social constructionism

meaning of social structures/concepts emerges from how we think and communicate about them

• focus on how we construct symbols instead of focus of people interacting with symbols

rational choice theory

choose actions to maximize likelihood of accomplishing certain goals

social exchange theory

views social interactions as interchanges with costs and rewards

feminist theory

goal of understanding and remedying gender injustices

hidden curriculum

things you learn in educational setting that are not part of the curriculum

stratification

levels of socioeconomic status → people with higher status have more resources

kinship of descent

family

kinship of affinity

marriage/adoption

primary kin

close family bond

secondary kin

primary kin of primary kin

Max Weber’s Sociology of Religion

religious organizations exist on a spectrum

• denominations: dif interpretations/traditions

• sects: smaller dissident split

• modernization decreases secularization

fundamentalism

literal, uncompromising approach to religion

power

ability to get things done and compel certain behaviors

authority

legitimacy and right of the government to structure citizen lives

monarchy

rulership passed down in defined succession, usually through family

authoritarian

citizens have little/no input into how government is run

totalitarianism

government regulates every aspect of life, including citizen communication

direct democracy

citizens vote for themselves

democratic republic

people vote through representatives

capitalism

private ownership of both property and companies

• typically in democratic nations

socialism

collective ownership and distribution, recognizes private property

division of labor

leads to specialization → high-demand/low-demand skills

medicalization

treating medical conditions as social/cultural constructions

“sick role”

reflects social consensus that being sick is not your fault, exempt responsibility

• sometimes society blames people for their illness, works better for acute rather than chronic

• individual must seek and comply with medical treatment

medical organization

patient → primary care → specialists

paternalism

doctors that make decisions on patient’s behalf, without giving them input

current paradigm of medical ethics

• beneficence: acting for patient’s benefit

• nonmaleficence: “do no harm”

• respect for patient autonomy: patient’s right to make own decision contracting medical advice

• justice: doctors must provide care equally and fairly

illness experience

aims to analyze illness as a social construct

epidemiology

study of who gets illnesses, and distribution patterns (age, sex, location, etc)

expectancy theory

expectations teacher conveys to student causes student to change in accordance with these expectations

patrilineal descent

kinship relating to father

matrilineal descent

kinship relating to mother

bilateral descent

equal connection to both parents

theocracy

religion part of education/legal system

oligarchy

government run by small group of individuals who share some characteristic such as wealth, nobility, or military power

status

any social category used to identify people

ascribed status

status assigned to one involuntarily, based not on one’s actions

achieved status

status one works to attain

master status

status so dominant in someone’s life that it crowds out other statuses

role strain

strain brought on by multiple responsibilites from one role

role conflict

difficulty balancing multiple different roles

role exit

process of disengaging from a role

role engulfment

expansion of a role to dominate one’s life