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eyewitness memory is what>
reconstructive
the status of memory may be altered between encoding and retrieval because of what?
passage of time
intervening knowledge/experience
misinfromation
who came up with the passage of time and the forgetting curve? what does he suggest?
herman ebbinghaus
interview as quickly as possible
curves and slows down
memory decays quickly and plateaus over time
tested it himself
what is the function of memory?
to guide your future
synder and uranowitz conducted a study on intervening knowledge/ experience - they made participants read history story about betty k, immediately or one week later they were told betty k was either homosexual and heterosexual. what was then found?
they assessed their memory for the history story and found that:
delay did not exert an effect on participants responses
participants made more label-consistent errors than label-inconsistent errors
(consistent with the label you got = label consistent)
what is hindsight bias?
when knowledge of current events, emotions , or outcomes biases judgements and memory of processes leading up to them
can influence both judgements about what happened and memory of what happened
david, lopez and koyama conducted a study on intervening knowledge and experience and conducted a study where participants listened to an argument between a couple, what did the study consist of and what did they find?
half participants were told that the couple had broken up
half had been told that the woman had been found dead and that her boyfriend was charged with murder
memory for conversation was assessed
found:
participants in murder condition
more likely to accurately remember that the man had made threatning statements towards the girl
more likely to inaccurately recall that he had hit her and threatened her classmate
this contaminated their own memory
who came up with the term misinformation? describe the standard process of it
elizabeth loftus
event - misled - interviewed
if you feed people incorrect information they will incorporate it into their own memory
loftus conducted a study on the media where they showed participants 4 minute video clip of a robbery and shooting - then exposed them to a tv report which either contained misinformation or no misinformation. What was measured and found?
measured:
evaluation of news presenter
memory for videotape
found:
control group were highly accurate compared to misinformation group
almost 1/3 of misinformed participants incorporated the misinformation into their memory
what percentage of witnesses engage in co-witness discussion? what do they report as the primary prupose of these discussions?
86%
provide information and exchange information
what are the advantages of co witness discussions?
prompt witnesses to recall forgotten details
may reinforce memory
aid recover from trauma
paint a more accurate overall picture
what are the disadvantages of co witness discussions?
contaminate independent recollection
weaken the prosecution case
witnesses may become unsure of their testimony
may lead to reports of common things
collusion
what is a real example of a co witness discussion which had impacts?
oklahoma bombing
what concept did solomon asch develop?
conformity - to conform to other people in social situations
what are the 2 reasons you might conform?
normative conformity - follow group norm
informational conformity - think you are wrong and they are right
within co witness paradigms explain these
MORI technique
confederate paradigm
mori - look at same screen and see two different things
confederate - saw the same thing, but experimenter says they saw soemthing else
gabbert, memon and allan conducted a study on co-witness discussions and looked at pairs of participants watching a stimulated crime, each watching a different crime. half of the participants were allowed to discuss the crime after before being interviewed individually. What was found?
71% of participants in the discussion condition reported items that they had not seen
none of the participants in the control condition reported unseen items
60% of participants who had not seen the theft declared the girl guilty of stealing after discussing with a co witness who did
what is the illusory truth effect?
even the simple act of repeating a statement can increase the strength of ones belief in its truth
even in the absence of any input from a conversational partner, people asked to recall a witnessed event what?
bias their descriptions to reflect their own goals
report believing these biased descriptions
falsely recall the original stimli as consistent with their biased descriptions
allport conducted a study where they showed participants photos of a shabby dressed white manholding a razor arguing with an unarmed, well dressed black man, what did they find?
in retellings, over half the participants transposed the characters
what are the 4 possible mechanisms of misinformation?
person reports the misinformation, but knows that its wrong
the original memory gets overwritten or changed
there are now two memories but the original one becomes inaccessible or the person cant distinguish between the two
there was no original memory (no encoding)
toland conducted a stuyd on the possible mechanisms, the followed the standard misinformation procedure and were asked to bet money on their answers. Betting behaviour suggested high belief in false suggestions. what did they find?
they were believing the misinformation
rachel zajac et al conducted a study on possibe mechanisms where they were in pairs and one was a confederates. Half the particiapnts were believed that the confederate was consuming alcohol. What did they then do and find?
watched a video of a theft
discussion before interview - confederate gave 2 pieces of misinformation
found:
when pre-misinformation response was discrepant with the misinformation, participants were more likely to accept misinformation from the ‘sober’ co witness than the ‘drunk’ one
when participants were unable to provide a pre-misinformation response, co-witness condition had no effect on misinfo acceptance
what are the implications for eyewitnesses?
what happens between the event and the memory interview is the msot important
eyewitnes evidence should be treated as we treat physcial evidence
distortion can be minimised, but can’t always be avoided