final exam 1

objective

factual. Based on observations and measurements that are not biased

subjective

based on personal opinion, judgement, feelings, or point of view

covert behavior

“inward” behaviors that are harder to measure because we \n can’t see them directly

overt behavior

“outward” behaviors that we can directly observe

1879

Wilhelm Wundt establishes the first psychology laboratory

late 1880s

Emil Kraeplin contributes to the medical model with diagnoses for disorders like dementia praecox and melancholia

late 1880s 2

Freud develops psychoanalysis to assess patients’ internal conflicts, early experiences, and unconscious processes

mid 1900s

three major developments \n • Psychotherapy \n • Drug treatment \n • Criteria for diagnosing mental disorders (DSM-I, 1952)

DSM-V

diagnose psychological disorders, and clinicians are held to a high standard for treatment

structuralism

breaking down experience into its individual parts (structure) was \n the best way to understand thought and behavior; relied on introspection

Wilhelm Wundt, Edward Titchener

scientists associated with structuralism

functionalism

the function of behavior is more important than the structures of the mind; influenced by Darwin’s theory of natural selection

William James

scientists associated with functionalism

behaviorism

emphasized that only observable behavior could be scientifically studied, and psychology should focus on how organisms learn from and are shaped by their environment. Rejected introspection.

BF Skinner, John Watson

scientists associated with behaviorism

humanism

humans are basically good and naturally strive for growth and potential; we have free will and are not merely driven by reward and punishment

Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers

scientists associated with humanism

cognitivism

often compared the mind to a computer, in that it processes incoming information, organizes it, and uses it to make sense of the world and communicate.

psychoanalytic-psychodynamic

emphasizes early childhood experiences and \n unconscious processes

behaviorism-learning

emphasizes that behaviors are learned through \n association and/or consequences

humanistic-positive

people strive toward growth and well-being, and they have \n free will

evolutionary

human behavior has been shaped through thousands of years of adaptation via natural and sexual selection

sociocultural-cross-cultural

we can only understand people if we understand \n the context in which they exist

cognitive

emphasizes the study of mental processes like language, thought, problem-solving, intelligence, and memory

neuropsychological

genetic and neurological factors often influence \n psychological traits and behavior

The term “overt behavior” refers to a behavior:

that can be directly observed

Emil Kraeplin is a researcher known for:

developing the first medical diagnoses for disorders like schizophrenia and depression.

the psychoanalytic perspective primarily emphasizes:

early experiences and unconscious thought, motives, and emotions.

Central nervous system

receives and transmits information from the muscles, \n skeleton, and organ systems

parts of the CNS

brain, spinal cord

Peripheral nervous system

takes in sensory information from the external world \n and internal information from muscles, organs, and the skeleton and transmits it to the CNS; regulates both voluntary and involuntary movement and internal \n functions

parts of the PNS

somatic, autonomic nervous system

somatic nervous system

system of motor and sensory nerves that regulates voluntary movement and links the CNS to the rest of the body

autonomic nervous system

regulates involuntary and automatic processes like digestion, breathing, and heart rate

parts of the aNS

sympathetic, parasympathetic branch

sympathetic branch

arousal and fight-or-flight responses

parasympathetic branch

rest-and-digest; calms the body and returns it to homeostasis

frontal lobe

planning, impulse control, abstract thinking, primary motor cortex (complex voluntary movements)

parietal lobe

processing and perception of sensory information, esp. temperature, pain, pressure, and position/posture

temporal lobe

memory, emotion, auditory cortex (hearing)

occipital lobe

primary visual cortex (sight)

neuron

microscopic nerve cells that carry messages and neurotransmitters throughout the body

3 types of neurons

sensory, motor, interneuron neurons

sensory neurons

detect sensory information from the sense organs and \n carry it to the CNS

motor neurons

carry messages related to movement from the CNS to the \n rest of the body

interneurons

general neurons that link specialized neurons together \n throughout the body

pineal gland

helps regulate body rhythms and sleep cycles

major hormone of the pineal gland

melatonin

pituitary gland

“master gland” that influences growth and lactation; also \n regulates the activity of other glands

major hormone of the pituitary gland

growth hormone (GH)

thyroid gland

regulates the rate of metabolism in the body

major hormone of the thyroid gland

T3 and T4

adrenal gland

secrete hormones that arouse the body, help with adjustment to stress, regulate salt balance, and affect sexual functioning

major hormone of the adrenal gland

cortisol and epinephrine

pancreas

releases insulin to regulate blood sugar and hunger

major hormone of the pancreas

insulin

Changes to a person’s visual perception after a head trauma might indicate damage to which lobe of the cerebral cortex?

occipital lobe

The two major divisions of the nervous system are:

central and peripheral nervous system

Melatonin is a ____________ in the endocrine system that helps to regulate _____________.

hormone; sleep-wake cycle

physical changes

involve physical growth and changes to the body including \n height, weight, motor skills, and diseases that impact organ and bone health

cognitive changes

involve changes to thought, language, memory, learning, \n intelligence, and understanding of concepts

socioemotional changes

involve development of social skills, emotional intelligence, relationships (romantic or otherwise), culture, and social roles

germinal stage

(conception – 2 weeks): fertilized egg cell travels via fallopian tube to implant in the uterine wall \n ▪ some cells break away to form the placenta

embryonic stage

(2 – 8 weeks): organism now called an embryo and becomes attached to the placenta via an umbilical cord \n ▪ amniotic fluid cushions the embryo and very early forms of the heart, \n eyes, ears, limbs, and external genitalia develop \n ▪ the neural tube forms and will eventually become the nervous system

fetal stage

(8 weeks – birth): organism now called a fetus and will fully develop during this period \n ▪ bone cells form and major organs grow rapidly \n ▪ circulatory system begins functioning around 12 weeks \n ▪ senses become active around 22 weeks \n ▪ fetus reaches viability around 22-28 weeks \n ▪ nervous system development includes neurogenesis, neural migration, and increased neural connectivity

piagets cognitive stages

sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, formal operational

sensorimotor

(0 – 2 years): child learns through sensory experiences; cannot create mental images or understand abstract concepts; lacks object permanence

preoperational

(2 – 7 years): Child can create mental images but cannot use operations to transform those images; egocentrism dominates thought, which is often illogical

concrete operational

(7 – 11 years): Child has mastered mental operations like \n conservation; has developed theory of mind and can understand that other people have their own perspectives and wants/needs

formal operational

(11+): Child can use abstract reasoning, think critically, and \n engage in self-reflection

egocentrism

\
the child does not understand that others are seeing and feelings things that the child may not be able to see; egocentric children believe everyone is seeing and feeling what they are experiencing

object permanence

the understanding that an object does not cease to exist just because it is out of sight

conservation

the understanding that changing the way an object looks does not necessarily inherently change the object itself (ex: pouring a short glass of water into a taller glass does not change the amount of water present)

theory of mind

the understanding that others have their own wants, needs, \n experiences, feelings, thoughts, and beliefs; people are capable of being dishonest and believing things that are incorrect or untrue

trust vs mistrust

(0 – 1 year): the child develops an internal sense of trust if they are given warmth and care; mistrust occurs if the baby is given inadequate or inconsistent care

identity vs role confusion

(adolescence): Children build a consistent identity out \n of their talents, values, life history, relationships, and the demands of their culture; role confusion happens when they are not free to explore this

intimacy vs isolation

(early adulthood): young adults form intimacy with another \n person (or multiple people) through shared experiences and deep knowledge of each other; isolation may occur if the young adult feels disconnected, lonely, or misunderstood

generativity vs stagnation

(middle adulthood): middle adults focus on the \n legacy they are leaving behind; generativity refers to a sense that one has contributed to the next generation through parenthood, culture, work, or reproduction; stagnation occurs when the middle adult feels as though their contributions are nonexistent, overlooked, or that they do not matter

integrity vs despair

(late adulthood): a rich and responsible life leads to integrity (self-respect and contentment) whereas regrets or the feeling that one’s life was poorly lead cause despair; impacts how the person approaches their impending \n death.

According to Piaget, abstract thinking and hypothetical-deductive reasoning do not develop until a person reaches the ___________ stage of cognitive development

formal operational

The idea of internal socioemotional dilemmas that a person must resolve before maturing to the next stage of development is associated with the theorist:

Erikson

The cognitive skill of conservation refers to a child’s ability to understand:

that changing the appearance of an object does not inherently change the object’s value or volume

Lazarus and Folkman

two step appraisal theory of stress

primary appraisal

quick assessment of the event and how relevant it is to you

secondary appraisal

assessment of the resources you have to cope with the \n event – what can I do to cope with or change the stressor?

chronic stress

long-term and tends to have a greater negative impact on \n mental and physical health

short term

\
short-term and can be helpful for building coping skills, resilience, and motivation

adrenal-medullary system

activates sympathetic neurons, which tell adrenal \n glands to release adrenaline (increases HR, BP, respiration)

HPA axis (hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal)

hypothalamus sends CRF to pituitary gland; pituitary releases ACTH which stimulates adrenal gland to release cortisol

cortisol

stress hormone responsible for processes in the arousal system \n ▪ Increases sugars (glucose) in the bloodstream for fuel \n ▪ Enhances brain's use of glucose \n ▪ Increases the availability of substances that repair tissues \n ▪ Curbs nonessential functions \n • Suppresses digestion \n • Reduces immune cells in the bloodstream \n • Suppresses reproductive functions

effects of prolonged stress on the brain

▪ Excess cortisol shrinks dendrites in the hippocampus (impacts memory) \n ▪ Chronic stress reduces neurogenesis \n ▪ Stress during pregnancy can impact development \n • Amygdala, hippocampus, hypothalamus, and corpus callosum \n ▪ Increased risk of psychological disorders

effects of prolonged stress on the heart

▪ Heartburn/ulcers from increased stomach acid buildup \n ▪ High blood pressure increases risk of cardiovascular disease and heart attack

problem-focused coping

involves attempts to change the problem or stressor and \n is most likely to occur when we think that we can change the situation

emotion-focused coping

involves attempts to regulate the emotional experience \n around the stressor

types of emotion-focused coping

reappraisal, distancing/escape-avoidance, emotional disclosure, self-control/accepting responsibility

reappraisal

reevaluation of situation in light of new insights

distancing.escape-avoidance

separating oneself/distraction from an emotional experience

emotional disclosure

dealing with stress by writing or talking about a \n situation

self-control/accepting responsibility

acknowledging one’s own role in the \n situation and addressing it

Chronic stress causes overproduction of ___________, which has been linked to problems with memory, increased risk of cardiovascular disease, and reduced neurogenesis

cortisol