AP European History Review

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Ottoman Empire

Centered in Constantinople, the Turkish imperial state that conquered large amounts of land in the Middle east, North Africa, and the Balkans, and fell after WWI.

Mary Queen of Scots

Catholic relative to Protestant Queen Elizabeth I of England. She allegedly plotted with Spain's Philip II to overthrow Elizabeth and reassert Catholicism in England. Elizabeth had her beheaded.

Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen

National Assembly proclamation that men are born free and equal before the law. Also granted freedom of religion, speech, and the press. Asserted that all men have a right to seek public office and have a fair trial.

Quadruple Alliance

In 1814 a coalition of Britain, Prussia, Russia, and Austria met and agreed to restore the pre-Napoleonic balance of power as well as to restructure boundaries.

Truman Doctrine

The policy, begun in 1947, that the US would not challenge existing Communist nations' right to exist, but would actively and militarily opposed any further expansion of communism. This policy of containment was followed for decades.

James I

Son of Mary Queen of Scots. Ruled England and Scotland together until 1625. Believed in divine-right rule and Anglicanism, which led to conflict with the largely Puritan Parliament. Closest relative to Elizabeth I at the time of her death.

"Bloody Sunday"

In 1905, a large but peaceful group of poor Russians marched to the Winter Palace to present a petition to Nicolas II. Soldiers opened fire on the group, and many (including women and children) were killed or injured; this further reduced trust in the Czar.

Napoleonic Code

One of Napoleon's most substantial achievements was the Civil Code of 1804, which centralized the disorganized body of French laws, safeguarded property rights, and upheld conservative attitudes towards women and labor organizations/

Helsinki Accords - Helsinki Final Set

Meeting of the US and most European nations in Helsinki to increase efforts for mutual cooperation. Lasted from 1972-5. One important outcome was the agreement that existing political boundaries would not be altered by military force.

Otto von Bismarck

Bismarck, master of Realpolitik, was chancellor of Prussia from 1861-71. He was devoted to the Hohenzollerns (Prussian ruling family) and the unification of Germany, which occurred in 1871. He continued to serve as Chancellor until he was fired in 1890 by William II.

Pragmatic Sanction

Just before his death in 1740, Charles VI release this sanction. It urged all constituent Austrian lands to allow his daughter, Maria Theresa, to inherit Austria and other Habsburg lands, despite the fact that she was a woman.

Peter the Great

Romanov ruler of Russia from 1682-1725. He brought Western European ideas to Russia, improved the Russian army, achieved control of the Orthodox Church, dominated the nobility, and transformed Russia into a major world power.

Charles I

Stuart son of James I and King of England, 1625-49. Beheaded by Roundheads at the end of the Civil War. Charles fought with the Puritan Parliament over his war expenses related to Scotland and Ireland, advancing his belief in the divine right of kings, and marrying a Catholic, French princess.

Seven Years' War

War from 1756-63. Began as the "French and Indian War" in North America (in 1754). Evolved into a war on the European continent resulting from the alliance structure developed in the Diplomatic Revolution and ending with Russia's surprise switch to an alliance with Prussia and a confirmation of Prussia's hold on Silesia.

Concordat

1801 agreement with the Pope engineered by Napoleon to end the rift after the 1790 Civil Constitution of the Clergy. This recognized France as largely Catholic but guaranteed religious freedom. The Church agreed to give up claims to lands the revolutionaries had seized and sold.

Holocaust

The term means "burnt offering" and refers to the Naz efforts (1933-45) to exterminate the Jews in Europe. Of the 11 million European Jews, 6 million were murdered.

Tennis Court Oath

When the Third Estate was locked out of the Estates General meeting and declared on May 5, 1789 (on a Versailles tennis court) that they were the National Assembly, they invited the other two estates to join them and decreed that a constitution would be written before they would adjourn.

Roundheads and Cavaliers

Roundheads were supporters of Parliament, including non-Anglican Protestants and Puritans, while Cavaliers (or royalists) were supporters of the King - largely Roman Catholics, Anglicans, or nobles.

"Iron Curtain"

This phrase, coined by Winston Churchill, in a 1946 speech, referred to the dangers of the increasing Soviet control and domination of Eastern Europe.

Marie Antoinette

Austrian daughter of Empress Maria Theresa. Married Louis XVI to strengthen Franco-Austrian relations. Became the most hated woman in France because of her ostentation and refusal to support reforms. Guillotined in October 1793.

Jonas Salk

American doctor who invented the polio vaccines in 1953. Polio crippled and killed millions worldwide, and the successful vaccine virtually eliminated the scourge.

Immanuel Kant

The German philosopher who postulated that experience dictates human knowledge. He also said morality rests on the "categorical imperative".

Anwar Sadat

Egyptian leader who began a policy of cooperation with the US and Western Europe. Under his leadership, Egypt was the first Middle Eastern nation to recognize Israel. He was assassinated in 1981 by a group of fundamentalist officers.

Andreas Vesalius

Flemish scientist who pioneered the study of anatomy and provided detailed overviews of the human body and its systems.

Simony

Practice of the Roman Catholic Church in the Middle Ages wherein Church leaders sold high Church positions. This practice was used to gain power for sons who would not inherit family wealth and land because of birth order.

Final Solution

The phrase used by the Nazis for their goal of exterminating all the Jews in Europe. An estimated 6 of the 11 million European Jews were murdered.

"ethnic cleansing"

Euphemism given to genocide committed in the 1990s in former Yugoslavia. Thi was a Serbian policy directed against Muslims in the region. Serbian leader Slobodan Milosevic was arrested and awaits trial at The Hague.

Willie Brandt

Cold War mayor of West Berlin who served as Chancellor of West Germany (1969-74). He instituted a policy of greater cooperation with eastern communist nations.

Elizabeth I

Tudor Queen of England. Succeeded Mary I in 1558 and ruled until 1603. In addition to leading the defeat of the Spanish Armada and developing England into a world power, she strengthened Protestantism. Daughter of Henry VIII.

Fascism

Political and economic movement that emphasizes nationalism and militarism with a state-controlled economy. Fascism was linked to the political parties that controlled Germany and Italy before and during WWII. Personal rights are limited and obedience to the state is paramount.

Friedrich Nietzsche

German philosopher who rejected traditional rational philosophy. He claimed God was dead and that there were "supermen" who would come to govern and run societies over ordinary men. Died in 1889.

Jesuits

A religious order known as the Society of Jesus, created to strengthen support of the Church during the Counter-Reformation. Founded by Ignatius de Loyola in 1534, these "soldiers of the Counter-Reformation" were committed to doing good deeds in order to achieve salvation.

Johannes Gutenberg

The European inventor of the printing press, which allowed books to be printed quickly and economically. He used his invention to print copies of the Bible. This invention aided the spread of Renaissance and Reformation ideas throughout Europe.

Yalta Conference

In 1945, Stalin, Churchill, and FDR met to discuss postwar issues. Stalin was the winner, gaining a pro-Soviet government in charge of Poland, the division of Germany, and territory concessions in Asia as well.

Totalitarianism

Type of government in which the state is in almost complete control of its citizens' lives. Individual rights are virtually nonexistent; the welfare of the state is all-important. Stalin and Hitler are considered totalitarian rulers.

Detente

Period of increased cooperation between the US and the USSR. This was undertaken by President Nixon and his secretary of State, Henry Kissinger, in the 1970s. Detente was a factor in the end of the Cold war and of the USSR.

Thomas More

English humanist, contemporary of Erasmus, and author of "Utopia", in which he condemned governments as corrupt, and private property. As the first law chancellor of England, he was late executed by Henry VIII when he refused to agree that the King was the supreme head of the English Church.

Kaiser William II

Kaiser who began ruling in 1888. He determined to expand German influence and greatly increased the size of Germany's military. He led Germany into WWI and abdicated the throne in 1918.

William Harvey

English physician who used lab experiments to study the circulation of blood and its flow through arteries and veins as well as the heart.

The Consulate

First five years of Napoleon's rule as dictator after his 1799 coup d'etat in which he had sole power to propose new laws that the legislature could only approve or reject.

War of the Roses

War between the York and Lancaster houses in England for control of the English crown. The white rose symbolized the York House and the red rose symbolized the Lancaster House. By 1485, Henry Tudor of Lancaster defeated King Richard III of York. Tudor set up a strong monarchy in England.

The Balkans

The region north of the Greek peninsula, home to various and frequently violent ethnic groups. WWI began here (sarajevo) and it was the region of intense ethnic violence in the 1990s. Tension among Slavic people and between Christians and Muslims also have led to war.

Frederick William I

Son of Prussian King Frederick I who ruler from 1713-40. He channeled royal funds toward militarizing Prussia, creating an efficient tax system, and establishing compulsory education.

Alexander II

The Czar liberator who issued a proclamation "freeing" the serfs. Assassinated in 1881.

Predestination

John Calvin's belief that at the beginning of time, God had preselected who among all people would be saved and have salvation, a group known as the "elect". This group was expected to follow the highest moral standards and be completely dedicated to God's wishes.

Benjamin Disraeli

Disraeli, a great leader of Britain's Conservative Party, held the office of Prime Minister in 1868 and again from 1874-80. He was a strong supporter of Britain's imperialist ambitions, but also supported a policy of liberal social reforms.

United Nations

During WWII, Allied leaders decided to establish an international organization devoted to promoting peace. The UN was formally established in 1945.

English Bill of Rights

1689 document declaring Parliament would choose who ruled England, that the ruler could not tax without Parliamentary consent, that the ruler could not suspend Parliament, that the ruler was subject to all laws, that Parliament was to meet frequently, that MPs were guaranteed freedom of speech, and that cruel and unusual punishment was illegal.

Desiderius Erasmus

Dutch scholar known as "Prince of Northern Humanists." Lived from 1465-1536. He criticized the lack of spirituality in the Church in "Praise of Folly", which ridicules the superstition, ignorance, and vice of Christians on pilgrimages, in fasting, and the Church's interpretation of the Bible.

The Restoration

When Parliament invited, in 1600, the Stuart son of Charles I, Charles II, to return to England to rule, thereby ending the Cromwellian republic.

Spanish Armada

Fleet of 130 ships launched by Spain's Catholic Philip II to conquer England during the time of Elizabeth I. England was victorious in defeating the Spanish, who never again posed a decided threat against England.

Mary Wollstonecraft

British feminist of the 18th century who argued for women's equality with men, even in voting, in her 1792 "Vindication of the Rights of Woman"

Amerigo Vespucci

Italian navigator who crossed the Atlantic several times and officially called the land thought by Columbus to be Asia the "New World". Later a German cartographer renamed this land "America" in honor of Vespucci's work.

Berlin Airlift

After WWII, Berlin was divided into eastern and western sectors, with the USSR controlling the east and Britain, France, and the US controlling the west. From 1948-9, the Soviets used a blockade against West Berlin. However, Western nations used airplanes to supply West Berlin, and the USSR eventually ceased the blockade.

Isaac Newton

English scientist and author of works explaining the law of universal gravitation and means of measuring motion. His work inspired the notion of natural and universal laws ordering and arranging life.

Council of Trent

Summoned by Pope Paul III to try and define Catholic doctrine and thwart Protestant attacks on Catholic beliefs. These meetings from 1545-63 did not reform the doctrines but did end several corrupt practices criticized by Reformers within the Church and reasserted traditional Catholic doctrine.

Glorious Revolution

In 1688, Parliament gave the crown to James II's Protestant daughter, Mary II, and her Protestant husband, William III, as joint rulers rather than to James II's Catholic son. It was a bloodless and "glorious" transfer of power.

Mohandas Gandhi

Leader of India's independence movement. He led the Congress Party, notable for its focus on nonviolent protest. His influence was confirmed when India gained independence from Britain in 1947.

Simone de Beauvoir

French author of "The Second Sex". She argued for women's rights and was also a prominent figure in the existentialist movement. Died in 1986.

John Wycliff

Criticized the Church and the corruption in its clergy in the 1300s. Challenged papal infallibility and called for the power of the clergy to be supplanted with the Bible and individual interpretation of it by all Catholics. Together with Jan Hus he set the stage for the Protestant Reformation.

Bauhaus

German architect Walter Gropius (1883-1969) founded the Bauhaus School of Architecture. He favored clean, streamlined buildings. Other pioneers of this "International Style" were Le Corbusier and Frank Lloyd Wright.

Niccolo Machiavelli

Florentine diplomat and historian who lived from 1469-1527. Wrote the famous essay, "The Prince", which described his view of realistic government with a strong leader concerned only with political power and success and embracing the ideal of seeking to be feared rather than loved by the masses.

Treaty of Westphalia

1648 treaty ending the Thirty Years' War. France gained Alsace; the Netherlands and Switzerland gained independence from the HRE; and the German princes were given near independence from the Empire.

Bolsheviks

The radical Russian Communists led by Vladimir Lenin who established Communist rule in Russia. Nicknamed the "Reds."

Solidarity

Polish labor union formed in 1980 after major protests against the Communist labor system in place at the time. In 1981 it was shut down by Polish Communist leaders, but regained strength in 1989 and openly opposed the Soviet-backed party.

"Lebensraum"

German word for "living space". The Nazis claimed the German people deserved more room to expand and used this as a justification for invading neighboring nations.

Mary Shelley

Wife of Percy B. Shelley who is most famous for her romantic novel, "Frankenstein". Its message was that man should not try and imitate God or challenge nature.

Winston Churchill

Churchill (1874-1965) held numerous government offices, but is most famous for his service as Prime Minister from 1940-5 and 1951-5. His stirring speeches and refusal to surrender during the darkest days of WWII inspired the free world. He advocated strengthening ties between the US and Britain.

Beer Hall Putsch

In 1923 the Nazis attempted to overthrow the government in Munich. It was a total failure, and Hitler received a brief prison sentence during which time he wrote "Mein Kampf".

Taiping Rebellion

This rebellion attempted to overthrow the Qing dynasty in China. Hong Xiuquan, who claimed relation to Jesus, led it. It was defeated in 1864 after invention by European nations.

Kellogg-Briand Pact

Agreement proposed by American Secretary of State Frank Kellogg in 1927. An outgrowth of WWI, the pact denounced war as a way to resolve conflict and was endorsed by over 50 countries within 5 years.

John Wesley

He was the British founder of the Methodists. He stressed the need for piety, devotion, and acceptance of one's lot. Died in 1791.

Christopher Columbus

Italian explorer commissioned by Queen Isabella of Spain to find a shorter route to Asia by sailing westward. In 1492, Columbus sailed on the Nina, Pinta, and Santa Maria going west across the Atlantic. He landed on what he called the Indies but were actually islands in the Caribbean.

Gen. Francisco Franco

In 1936 the Spanish Civil War began. Franco led the Fascists, fighting republican forces. In 1939, the Fascist forces won (with help from Italy and Germany). Franco ruled until his death in 1975.

Commercial Revolution

A period of economic innovation that was a result of colonization and exploration between the late 15th and 18th centuries. The Commercial Revolution saw the rise of joint-stock companies and the growth of mercantilism.

The National Convention

Governed the French Republic from 1792-5, members were elected through universal male suffrage and became divided along political lines. Declared the end of the monarchy. Brought Louis XVI to trial and executed him and his wife.

Pablo Picasso

One of the artistic giants of the 20th century. Helped found the Cubist and Abstract movements. During his life (1881-1973) he worked in various media and is noted for scores of important works. His painting "Guernica" is one of the most powerful anti-war expressions of the modern era.

Gulags

Forced labor camps set up by Stalin in eastern Russia. Dissidents were sent to the camps, where conditions were generally brutal. Millions died.

Intendants

Officials of the French absolute rulers who were dispensed as region representatives into French provinces to consolidate the Crown's control.

Warsaw Pact

Essentially the USSR's response to NATO's creation. The Pact began in 1955, with European communist nations pledging mutual military support to one another. It ended with the collapse of the USSR in 1991.

Marshall Plan

After the massive destruction in Europe following WWII, the US proposed an economic plan in 1947 to help restore the region. Aid was provided to any European nation that promised cooperation (Soviet-bloc nations did not participate). The plan was very successful.

Louis XVI

Ruler of France (1774-92). Successor of Louis XV. Married Marie Antoinette, and nearly bankrupted France by supporting the American Revolution. Guillotined in January 1793 by the orders of the National Convention.

Jansenism

Movement within the 17th century Catholic Church. Jansenism opposed the Jesuits and advocated that humans could only achieve salvation through divine grace, not through good works.

Frederick William

Hohenzollern ruler of Brandenburg, Prussia, after the end of the Thirty Years' War. Known as "the Great Elector" who improved and rebuilt the state.

Kristallnacht

"Night of broken glass," occurring in November 1938. This marked the beginning of overtly violent Nazi attacks against the Jewish population in Germany.

Francesco Petrarch

Known as the father of Renaissance Humanism. He lived from 1304-74 as a cleric and committed his life to humanistic pursuits and careful study of the classics. He resisted writing in the Italian vernacular except for his sonnets, which were composed to his "lady love" who spoke no Latin.

Margaret Sanger and Marie Stoopes

Early crusaders for women's reproductive rights.

Charles II

Stuart son of Charles I and ruler of England from 1660-85. Known as the "Merry Monarch" because of his restoration of a more liberal culture after Cromwell's conservative republic.

Separatists (Puritans)

Radical Protestants in England who believed Henry VIII did not take extreme enough measures in merely creating the Anglican Church. They favored "purifying" the new Anglican Church of all similarities to the Catholic Church.

Romanticism

An artistic movement in art, literature, and music popular in the 19th century. Mystic, exotic, and foreign topics were popular, as were ancient and medieval history and topics like the glory of nature.

Rasputin

Self-proclaimed Russian holy man who became confidante to Czarina Alexandria, wife of Nicholas II. He reputedly was able to help the heir, Alexis, who suffered from hemophilia. His unsavory reputation and drunken behavior led to rumors that his relationship with the Czarina was inappropriate. Murdered in 1916.

Existentialism

The philosophical belief that the universe is unknowable. Numerous philosophers adopted this thesis, but they each reacted to it in different ways. Those involved in the movement include Soren Kierkegaard (considered the founder) and Jean-Paul Sartre.

Holy Roman Empire

Political affiliation of Germanic and central European city states and principalities to perpetuate Latin Christendom. Did not include England and France. Emperors after the 14th century were elected by seven electors representing the clergy and important participants.

Laissez-faire

Economic philosophy a "hands off" approach. Advocates that governments should not in any way interfere with business, as the marketplace provides an "invisible hand" to steer the economy. An early proponent was Adam Smith.

Treaty of Versailles

One of the treaties of Paris (1919) that ended WWI. It incensed Germans because of its harsh terms for reparations, territory, and control.

Treaty of Tordesillas

Agreement between Spain and Portugal to divide from north to south the Atlantic Ocean so that the two nations would not be competing for the same lands in their zealous explorations. Spain was to explore the lands west of the line, while Portugal was to have the eastern region.

Luddites

In 19th century Britain, some workers, accurately predicting that the factory system would replace them, joined forces and attacked factories and destroyed machines. Called the Luddites, their movement lasted from 1811-16.

Max Weber

German philosopher and author who founded the field of sociology. He also stressed the importance of the Protestant work ethic in industrial society.

Thomas Hobbes

English philosopher and author of "Leviathan", in which he explained that a state of chaos and war existed prior to a social contract forming a government, which should be led by a sovereign invested with absolute power in exchange for protection of group safety and social order.

Louis XIV, The Sun King

Louis XIV of France ruled from 1643-1715, the longest reign in French history. He constructed Versailles, believed in divine right of kings, engaged in many wars, and established absolutism in France.