Human Physiology Semester One Exam Review

Truth

what we know for sure because God told us it was true. cannot change

Science Facts

can change as we learn more about the world

Characteristics of life

cells, homeostasis, adapted to a changing environment, growth/development/reproduce, DNA, metabolism

Levels of Biological Organization

atoms, simple molecules, macromolecules, organelles, cells, tissue, organs, organ systems, organisms, population, communities, ecosystem, biosphere

population

all organisms of one species in a given area

community

all populations

ecosystem

all communities and the abiotic factors

Darwins three observations

Species have variations, populations over reproduce, adaptED to their environment.

Darwins two inferences

over time offspring change, and natural selection

taxonomy

science of naming and describing animals

specific name

genus and species ex. humans are homo sapiens

levels of taxonomy

Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species

valence electrons

electrons in outermost shell

atomic number

amount of protons, defines the element (a smaller, whole number)

mass number

protons and neutrons in the most common isotope (whole number, larger)

atomic mass

average of isotopes (decimal)

ion

gain or lost electrons

molecule

two or more atoms bonded together

Non-polar covalent

an intramolecular bond that shares electrons equally

polar covalent

does not share equally because of different electronegativity (pull)

ionic

takes electrons because it has a very strong electronegativity

chemical formula

ways to describe a molecule (how many atoms are in each molecule)

chemical equation

describes a chemical reaction

activation energy

activates a reaction

catalyst

lowers activation energy

enzyme

a biological catalyst with proteins

intermolecular

between molecules

hydrogen bonding

the intermolecular force in which a hydrogen atom that is bonded to a highly electronegative atom is attracted to an unshared pair of electrons of an electronegative atom in a nearby molecule

hydrophilic

having an affinity for water (also has partial charges)

hydrophobic

non-polar

Cohesion

Attraction between molecules of the same substance

Adhesion

An attraction between molecules of different substances

Surface Tension

the uneven forces acting on the particles on the surface of a liquid

density

mass/volume. water specifically is interesting because ice has a lower density than water making ice float. this is because the particles expand instead of condensing.

four biomolecules

carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids

proteins (polymers and monomers)

polypeptides and amino acids

lipids (polymers and monomers)

none

Carbohydrates (polymers and monomers)

polysaccharides and monosaccharides

nucleic acids (polymers and monomers)

DNA, RNA, nucleotide

three parts of a nucleotide

phosphate, sugar, nitrogenous base

four nitrogenous bases

Adenine, Thymine, Guanine, Cytosine

purines

Adenine and Guanine

Pyramadines

thymine and cytosine

which nitrogenous bases bond together?

adenine and thymine. guanine and cytosine

dehydration synthesis

bonds monomers to form polymers (polymerization) following the removal of water.

hydrolysis

polymers breakdown into monomers

pH

hydrogen ion concentration (pH= -log[H+])

acid

release hydrogen ion into a solution (1-6)

base

removes hydrogen ion

buffer

weak acid or base that can give or take hydrogen ions

intra

within

Prokaryotic

No nucleus

eukaryotic

A cell characterized by the presence of a nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles. Eukaryotes can be unicellular (protists) or multicellular (fungi, plants and animals).

all cells have

DNA, cell membrane, ribosomes, cytoplasm

Nucleus/Nucleolus

Almost all the cellular DNA is separated in the nucleus - which is enclosed by a double membrane, perforated by several nuclear pores. Ribosomes are largely built in the nucleolus - making it a factory for factories.

Ribosome

the protein-building factories of the cell. They are largely built in the nucleolus - making it a factory for factories. Unlike many other organelles, ribosomes are not bound by a membrane.

The Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) (rough & smooth)

an interconnected network of membranes throughout the cell - major site of biosynthesis in the cell. Rough ER - has ribosomes embedded within its membrane. Smooth ER- phospholipids and steroids are synthesized.

Mitochondria

present in nearly all cells. As with chloroplasts, they have their own DNA (because egg cells contain mitochondria and sperm cells do not - you inherited all your mitochondrial DNA from your mother.

Chloroplast

(present in plant and many types of algal cells) are the solar power plants of the cellular world - harnessing energy (in the form of electromagnetic radiation) from sunlight and converting atmospheric carbon dioxide it into the simple sugar glucose.

Cytoplasm/Cytosol

Cell liquid in which chemical reactions occur. Supports & protects the organelles. Allows for movement of materials in the cell.

Cell Membrane

controls what enters and exits the cell. its semi-permeability. It is composed of many phospholipid molecules lined up side-by-side in a double layer - the lipid bilayer.

Cell Wall

A rigid structure that surrounds the cell membrane and provides support to the cell

Golgi Apparatus

modify, package, and transport proteins.

Lysosome

membrane-bound sacs of digestive enzymes.

Vacuoles

serve as small storage containers for water. They take up most of the space in a plant cell -making the plant rigid. With a lack of water, plants will wilt.

endosymbiotic theory

The presence of DNA in both the chloroplast and the mitochondrion is evidence that at some point in the past, a prokaryotic cell became engulfed within another, larger cell, and began to coexist in a symbiotic relationship in which both benefitted.

phospholipid bilayer

double layer of phospholipids

fluid mosaic

not rigid, flexible, made out of different substances

Passive transport

does not require energy because it is natural and goes down its gradient

types of passive transport

simple diffusion (for small non polar substances), facilitated diffusion(bigger, protein channels), osmosis (diffusion of water)

active transport

requires energy

types of active transport

bulk transport - exocytosis and endocytosis (pinocytosis/drink and phagocytosis/eat)

tonicity

solution or environment cells are in

hypotonic

cell swells, more solute inside and water outside, water moves in

isotonic

dynamic equilibrium. no net movement.

hypertonic

cells shrink, more solute outside, water moves out

Oxidation/Reduction Reactions

electrons are transferred from one reactant to another, forming new products in the process. Atoms that gain electrons are said to be reduced, while atoms that lose electrons are said to be oxidized (OIL RIG)

Exothermic

release heat energy. chemical potential energy in the reaction products is lower than the chemical potential energy in the reactants. Thus, energy is released into the environment.

Endothermic

absorbs energy. the final energy of the products is higher than that of the reactants, indicating a net gain in the energy stored in the chemical bonds of those molecules.

Catabolic

serve to break down macromolecules into usable building blocks. release the energy required to drive the anabolic processes (in addition to active transport, DNA replication, cell division, and protein synthesis.)

anabolic

reactions take the building blocks and build up macromolecules. requires energy

Four steps of aerobic cellular respiration

1. glycolysis 2. oxidation of pyruvate 3. Krebs cycle (citric acid cycle) 4. oxidative phosphorylation

Cellular Respiration Formula

C6H12O2 + 6O2 ------> 6CO2 + 6H20 + Energy (ATP)

Where does aerobic cellular respiration end

in ATP synthase

Glycolysis

occurs in cytosol, starts with glucose ends with 2 pyruvate, and uses 2 ATP molecules to generate 4 ATP molecules (for a net production of 2 ATP molecules), does not require oxygen (anaerobic)

Oxidation of Pyruvate

occurs in the mitochondrial matrix, starts with pyruvate and ends with acetyl coA with remaining carbon released as CO2, and does not generate ATP

Krebs cycle (critic acid cycle)

occurs in the mitochondrial matrix, starts with Acetyl CoA and transforms it into Carbon Compounds, releasing NADH and FADH2 and some ATP. The NADH and FADH2 enter the electron transport chain. Generates 2 ATP.

Oxidative Phosporylation

occurs in the inner mitochondrial matrix (cristae), Using the energy of electrons stored in carrier molecules (NADH and FADH2), an Electron Transport Chain (ETC) drives a molecular motor called the ATP Synthase. Oxidative phosphorylation produces 26-28 ATP molecules.

Anaerobic Cellular respiration

does not require oxygen and switches oxygen with another substance but does all four steps.

fermentation (anaerobic respiration)

only does glycolysis (lactic acid and alcohol)

Photosynthesis formula

6CO2 + 6H2O ------> C6H12O6 + 6O2

Photosynthesis is the reverse of

cellular respiration

Photosynthesis splits

H2O and takes hydrogen and releases oxygen

we take in the oxygen from photosynthesis and

turn it into H2O in the last stage of cellular respiration

light dependent

makes ATP and NADPH and occurs in the thylakoid. absorbs sun and creates a gradient.

Calvin cycle

occurs in the stroma and makes glucose from ATP/ Carbon dioxide