Introduction to intelligence (John Maltby)

Why does intelligence matter

it is something we evaluate ourselves as a basic ability

• people often assess their own intelligence based on their perceived abilities in various tasks

We evaluate the intelligence of others based on…

on how others perform in intellectual tasks, their problem solving abilities, or their general knowledge

What are the positive outcomes of high intelligence

often linked to better educational achievements, successful careers, and improved problem-solving skills

What are the negative outcomes of high intelligence

• increased anxiety, depression, and social isolation due to overthinking, perfectionism, difficulty relating to peers

• heightened awareness of global problems or personal limitations, sometimes creating immense internal pressure and a struggle to meet self-imposed expectations

• linked to higher rates of certain mental health issues and physical health problems like immune disorders. 

What are positive outcomes of low intelligence

• strong work ethic, practical skills, emotional maturity, and social confidence

• often finding success in areas requiring dedication rather than abstract complexity, benefiting from supportive environments

What are negative outcomes of low intelligence

can be associated with various challenges, such as academic struggles, lower socioeconomic status, and health issues

How does intelligence help in problem-solving

intelligence helps us analyse situations, weigh options, and make informed decisions

• for example, high cognitive abilities enable individuals to foresee the consequences of their actions and choose the best course of action

How does intelligence help with our everyday choices

people often rely on their intellectual capabilities to navigate daily challenges and long-term goals

• whether its deciding on a career path, solving a complex problem at work, or managing personal finances

How does intelligence extend beyond ourselves

education

• teachers beliefs about intelligence influence student expectations and feedback

workplace

• employers views of intelligence affect employment

opportunities

• people perceived as less intelligent may have fewer opportunities for development or leadership roles

Why are implicit theories of intelligence important

drives the way in which people perceive and evaluate their own intelligence and that of others

• shapes our beliefs

What are explicit theories of intelligence

defines intelligence through testable, data-driven constructs to explain cognitive performance

What are implicit theories of intelligence

people's fundamental, often unconscious, beliefs about whether intelligence is a fixed trait (fixed mindset) or something that can grow and improve with effort (growth mindset)

Describe the study USA lay-person implicit theories of intelligence by Sternberg et al., (1981)

61 persons studying in a college library, 63 persons entering a supermarket, and 62 persons waiting for a train in a railway station were asked to list behaviour characteristics of ‘intelligence’ and to rate themselves on each

• then 122 laypersons were asked to rate various properties of the behaviours that had been listed by respondents in the first experiment

What are the findings of the USA lay-person implicit theories of intelligence study by Sternberg et al., (1981)

Sternberg and his colleagues found 3 dimensions of intelligence

• practical problem solving

• verbal ability

• social competence

What did the finding ‘practical problem solving’ mean in the USA lay-person implicit theories of intelligence study by Sternberg et al., (1981)

• it is the ability to be practical and logical in regard to problems

• demonstrates an ability to analyse situations and engage in decision-making processes that involves reasoning

  • for example, able to think around a situation, create viewpoints, and present possible solutions to problems

What did the finding ‘verbal ability’ mean in the USA lay-person implicit theories of intelligence study by Sternberg et al., (1981)

• this is the ability to express yourself and converse with others confidently

• understand current meanings for words, and able to talk to others in ways that others understand

  • for example, when explaining difficult concepts, ability to translate to simple examples, to explain that concept

What did the finding ‘social competence’ mean in the USA lay-person implicit theories of intelligence study by Sternberg et al., (1981)

• this ability refers to skills necessary to be accepted and fulfilled socially

• understanding, competency, and motivation in terms of themselves and others

  • for example, good interpersonal skills, and a good balance between independence and interdependence with others.

  • for example, able to cooperate with others, show personal responsibility and show positive regard for others

What did Sternberg (1985) identify as components of intelligence

Sternberg (1985) focussed on responses among 40 Yale students

• practical problem-solving ability:

  • descriptors in the study that fell within this aspect included ‘tends to see attainable goals and accomplish them’ and ‘is good at distinguishing between correct and incorrect answers’

• verbal ability:

  • descriptors included ‘can converse on almost any topic’ and ‘has demonstrated a good vocabulary’.

• intellectual balance and integration:

  • descriptors included ‘has the ability to recognise similarities and differences’ and ‘makes connections and distinctions between ideas and things’.

• goal orientation and attainment:

  • descriptors included ‘tends to obtain and use information for specific purposes’ and ‘possesses ability for high achievement’.

• contextual intelligence:

  • descriptors included ‘learns and remembers and gains information from past mistakes or successes’ and ‘has the ability to understand and interpret his or her environment’.

• fluid thought:

  • descriptors included ‘thinks quickly’ and ‘has a thorough grasp of mathematics’.

Western views of intelligence refer to

the individual

Eastern cultures views of intelligence refer to

social, historical, and spiritual aspects of everyday interactions, knowledge, and problem solving

What cognitive psychology elements of intelligence were identified by Yang & Sternberg

• general cognitive factor:

  • descriptors: ‘makes quick responses’, learns things faster than others’, ‘has strong intellectual ability’

  • this aligns with the Western idea of practical problem-solving and understanding

• intellectual self-assertion:

  • descriptors: ‘puts interests first’, ‘thinks highly of themselves and is occasionally arrogant’, ‘claims others affection easily and is well-liked’

  • this theme focuses on confidence in one’s intellect and deriving self-worth from intellectual ability

• intellectual self-enhancement:

  • descriptors: ‘is lonesome’, ‘is sensitive’, ‘likes to think quietly or daydream’, ‘is often quiet but talks at length about interesting topics’

  • this involves modesty or shyness about one’s intellect, demonstrating a quieter, more introspective form of intellectual expression

What social psychology elements of intelligence were identified by Yang & Sternberg

• interpersonal intelligence:

  • descriptors: ‘is good at understanding others feelings’, ‘is kind and compassionate’, ‘knows how to treat others and handle daily matters’

  • this focuses on the ability to relate harmoniously with others and manage interpersonal relationships effectively

• intrapersonal intelligence:

  • descriptors: ‘knows the meaning and purpose of life’, ‘has good self-control and does not flaunt achievements’, ‘accepts different opinions without insisting on their own’

  • this emphasises self-knowledge, objective self-view, and internal self-regulation

Do people perceive intelligence differently for different stages of the life span?

• emphasis that the perception of intelligence varies depending on the stage of life being considered

• it suggests that people might have different criteria or views on what constitutes intelligence when they look at various life stages

Do people perceive intelligence differently at different stages of the life span

• emphasis how individuals perceptions of intelligence change as they or others go through different stages of life

• it suggests that a person’s view on what constitutes intelligence might evolve as they age and experience different life stages

Describe the study by Siegler and Richards (1982) - for the question do people perceive intelligence differently for different stages of the life span

compared implicit theories of intelligence among USA adults for 4 different stages of the life-span

What did the study by Siegler and Richards (1982) find - for the question do people perceive intelligence differently for different stages of the life span

• at 6 months old

  • recognise people and objects

  • show signs of motor co-ordination

  • show levels of awareness and make some verbalisation

• at 2 years

  • thought to comprise verbal ability

  • ability to learn

  • awareness of people and environment

  • motor co-ordination

  • curiosity

• at 10 years

  • consist of verbal ability, learning, problem solving, reasoning, and creativity

• adults

  • problem solving, verbal ability, reasoning, learning, and creativity

Describe the study by Fry (1984) - for the question do people perceive intelligence differently at different stages of the life span

compared implicit theories of intelligence at 3 stages of educational development; primary school, secondary school and tertiary (college and university) levels

What did the study by Fry (1984) find - for the question do people perceive intelligence differently at different stages of the life span

• at primary levels

  • social variables such as popularity, friendliness, respect of rules and order, and an interest in the environment were seen as important

• at secondary levels

  • energy and verbal fluency were seen as most important

• at tertiary levels (college and university)

  • logical thinking, broad knowledge, reasons and the ability to deal maturely and effectively with problems was seen as intelligence

Describe the study by Yussen and Kane (1985) - for the question do people perceive intelligence differently at different stages of the life span

interviewed 71, 11 to 16 year olds, about their beliefs of intelligence

What did the study by Yussen and Kane (1985) find - for the question do people perceive intelligence differently at different stages of the life span

• older students categorised intelligence into academic, social and physical intelligence

• younger students did not differentiate between these aspects and thought intelligence as one dimension

• Yussen and Kane found all the students considered knowledge to be central to intelligence, but older students reported academic skills were more important to intelligence than social skills

The implicit ideas we have about intelligence can influence us in

• mindsets

• controversies

What is the Entity theory of intelligence

it proposes that intelligence is fixed and does that change

• this means people belief is based on innate ability

• it does not mean that individuals cannot learn new things, their overall intelligence and their innate abilities around intelligence remain the same (fixed mindset)

What is the incremental theory

the implicit theory around intelligence is that it is not fixed

• it can change, and that factors such as effort and persistence in learning can change individuals’ intelligence (growth mindset)

What did Dweck mean by “mindsets” about intelligence

some people are not aware of whether they believe in Entity theory or Incremental theory

• instead this beliefs around intelligence, including their own, reflect the extent to which they attribute to one of these theories, what Dweck named the ‘mindset’ individuals had about intelligence

  • for Dweck, identifying these beliefs as mindsets was important because they have important consequences for how individuals approach various situations in their life

Dweck, Chiu, & Hong, (1995) found what in individuals who were closer to entity theory

that individuals who had beliefs consistent with the entity theory of intelligence cannot react positively to negative outcomes

• this is because they make negative judgements about their intelligence from failures and feel unable to do anything about the negative outcome because they believed they couldn't change anything

Dweck, Chiu, & Hong, (1995) found what in individuals who were closer to incremental theory

individuals who had beliefs consistent with the incremental theory of intelligence were able to react more positively to negative outcomes

• this is because they could believe they could change things over time

  • e.g. put more effort into things, plan better, come up with ways of solving and working with the problem

Give examples of developmental origins of fixed and growth mindsets

• mindsets emerge early

  • children as young as 3-5 show early beliefs about ability shaped by social feedback

• parental beliefs matter

  • parents with incremental beliefs foster children’s perseverance and vocabulary growth

• feedback type is critical

  • person praise (“you are smart”) fosters entity beliefs, while process praise (“you worked hard”) fosters incremental beliefs

What factors influence mindsets

• teachers’ mindsets influence classroom culture

  • entity oriented teachers emphasise performance and competition, whereas incremental-oriented teachers emphasise effort and persistence

 

• parents as mindset transmitters

  • parental expectations and belief systems directly shape children’s learning orientation

 

• cultural and domain specificity

  • people can simultaneously hold growth beliefs in one domain and fixed beliefs in another

 

• feedback loops

  • daily interactions reinforce children’s implicit beliefs about intelligence and capability

What are the key controversies in growth mindset research

• mixed predictive evidence

  • some studies find positive associations between growth mindset and achievement (Blackwell, Trzesniewski, & Dweck, 2007), but others report weak or null effects (Li & Bates, 2019; Bahník & Vranka, 2017).

 

• intervention effectiveness questioned

  • early interventions showed promise (Paunesku et al., 2015), but meta-analyses find small average effects (Sisk et al., 2018; Macnamara & Burgoyne, 2023).

 

• publication bias

  • studies with positive results are more likely to be published, inflating reported effects (Macnamara & Burgoyne, 2023).

 

• context dependency

  • effects are heterogeneous, often stronger in at-risk or disadvantaged groups (Yeager & Dweck, 2020; Burnette et al., 2023).

 

• teacher interventions

  • changing teacher mindsets does not consistently translate into improved student achievement (Foliano et al., 2019).