Exercise and Sport Psychology - Test 4

9 weeks or greater

a major injury is defined as having the time period of

environmental, biomechanical, anatomical, psychological

Causes of injury

CONSISTENTLY related to increasing odds of injury onset (Andersen and Williams, 1998)

Stress is

Paradox of Sensation Seeking (Smith, smoll, Ptacek, 1990)

paradox which is the lack of relationship between more openness to experience and higher of risk for injury

Stress-Athletic Injury Model

A model based closely off the Cognitive-Affective model

Potentially stressful situation —> perception of threat (cognitive appraisal) —> Stress response —> Injury

personality factors, history of stressors, coping resources

3 affectors of stress response

Indirectly

Personality is _____ related to how an athlete reacts to stress response

Acts as a buffer for negative responses and consequently decreases risk of injury

A positive state of mind in the face of stress

High life stress 

People with ___________ have more sport / exercise related injuries (Williams and Andersen 1998)

impinges

Life stressors along with daily hassles _____ a persons ability to address stress response. Serves as a partial explanation for “injury-plagued athletes”

social support, attentional strategy, medication

3 coping resources

Social Support

a type of coping resource that, if present, mitigates the relationship between life stress and athletic injury (Patterson, et al., 1998) 

Attentional Strategy

A type of coping resource that can help an athlete remain concentrated and focused on the task at hand; there are two types of this resource

Dissociative

type of attentional strategy that proved to have less incidence of injury (Masters and Ogles, 1998)

Medication

A type of coping resource that physiologically alters the body’s response to stress and consequently, risk of injury

Intervention

a way to encourage more positive stress responses, such as immediate praise and positive reinforcement / meeting with athletes 

Botella and Heyman, 1986

found that attitudes are also determinants of injury

Commitment to goal achievement / overconformity to norms of sport ethic —> prove you will do “whatever it takes to win” (Coakley, 2007)

Two different concepts whose lines are often confused when it comes to attitudes within sport

intervention and coping resources

we cannot control stressors such as history of stressors and personality but we can help alleviate symptoms through

Rhythmic breathing, progressive relaxation, meditation, autogenic training

Stress reduction techniques that athletes should be aware of

Keith Millard

Example of negative emotional response to injury, delayed return to play consequently

Facilitation of athlete’s emotional coping, psychological reactions impact rehab behavior (Mcdonald and Hardy, 1990), emotional responses affect body’s healing process

Why is understanding psychological responses to injury important?

An approach to psychological adjustment to injury that believes injured athletes tend to follow a staged grief response similar to people facing imminent death (Kubler-Ross 1990) 

Stage Model 

Denial, Anger, Bargaining, Depression, Acceptance

5 Stages of Grief Model

an approach to psychological adjustment to injury that claims that how an athlete appraises the situation will determine their behavior, based off Stress Appraisal Model by Lazarus and Folkman, 1984

Cognitive Appraisal Model (one’s interpretation)

Anger, Frustration, Depression

3 most common emotional responses to injury

Wiese - Bjornstal et al. 1998

found that personal and situational factors influence the cognitive appraisal process  Injury —> Primary appraisal —> Secondary appraisal

Primary Appraisal

A component in Wiese - Bjornstal’s findings that emphasizes:
“what is at stake?” “Is this harmful to me?”

Secondary Appraisal

A component in Wiese - Bjornstal’s findings that emphasizes:
“Which coping options are available?” “Will I be able to deal with this situation? How?”

low personal regard and LACK OF CONFIDENCE in one’s physical abilities, and in oneself and ability to adhere to rehab programs, and in being successful at sport and recover fully from injury

Brewer 2001 found that in following injury, athletes tended to have

Young Athlete (maybe 1st injury, lack exp. w/ it, unaware of coping means), Identify Strongly with Athlete Role, Level of Competition, Knowledgeable about physical consequences of injury

Personal Factors that promote stronger emotional responses (Brewer 2001) 

Lack of social support, Acute, Severe or uncommon nature of injury, time of season, Impingement of daily activities, high life stress

Situational Factors that promote stronger emotional responses (Brewer 2001)

Seeing injury as a time for personal growth or as a challenge, sport performance enhancement, developing interests outside of sport, heighten motivation for sport success and provide opportunities to reflect

Appraisals of Benefit (positive effectors)

be aware of common reactions, emotions may vary, switch from to positive emotional forms of problem focused coping, injury can produce numerous positive consequences

Implications for Recovery

Adam Coon 

Michigan wrestler, strong identity with sport, initially started off understandably frustrated and isolated but eventually accepted injury and was able to return more easily, growth mindset in the face of injury Initially was rehab and immediate return until rehab stopped working and surgery was required, testament to importance of moderation

Use more goal setting, use more positive self-talk, use more healing imagery

(IevIeva and Orliek, 1991) found that athletes with the fastest recovery times do these three things

Cupal and Brewer 2001

found that relaxation and imagery reduces pain and increases strength within injured area

psychological factors influence adherence to treatment protocols (Evans et al. 2006)

Main mechanism of psychology / recovery relationship is that

manage pain and direct energy, make effective use of social support, reduce risk taking behaviors, pursue rehab goals w/ optimal effort, ADHERE to rehab

Athletes who have positive rehab outcomes

compliance to instructions to reduce physical activity, adherence to home rehab activity, medical prescriptions, and consistent and enthusiastic participation in clinic

Rehab Adherence is defined by…

Self motivation (Brewer, et al. 2000), pain tolerance (Byerly et al. 1994), Internal focus of causality (Laubach et al. 1996), Self-efficacy in performing prescribed exercises (Lampton et al. 1993)

Personal Factors associated with rehab adherence (test q for sure)

Good rapport with physiotherapist, convenience of rehab program scheduling, social support for rehab program from trainers / coaches

Situational Factors associated with Rehab Adherence (Brewer, 1998) 

timeframes, knowledge of nature of injury, social support

in terms of social support, patients want

willingness to listen, positive attitude about rehab, disclose distress and discomfort but work to alleviate problem

in terms of social support, Practitioners want (Potter, 2001)

Building rapport, encouraging adherence through injury education, teaching psychological coping skills, how to cope with setbacks, foster social support and team interaction, and making use of role models

What should practitioners focus on in the rehab process?

“uncertainty is a universally aversive state” 

(Hogg and Mullin 1999) 

Competence issues, Autonomy issues, relatedness, self-presentational concerns

Factors concerning an athlete’s perspective on return to competition

Relatedness

A factor of an athletes perspective on return to competition that involves social support, remaining connected with team and coach (key motivation for return), and sense of belonging and identity

Implications for return to sport involve..

creating environments that satisfy an athletes physical as well as psychological needs, realizing that increases in pressure isn’t always beneficial, and reminding athletes of process goals which in turn helps reduce self-presentational concerns

“any form of behavior directed towards the goal of harming or injuring another living being who is motivated to avoid such treatment” 

definition of aggression (Baron and Richardson, 1994) 

Hostile / reactive aggression, instrumental aggression

two types of aggression

reactive / hostile aggression

type of aggression whose goal is to inflict harm

instrumental aggression

type of aggression whose goal is to service a non-aggressive goal “injure someone to help us win” 

Violence 

extreme physical aggression

Assertiveness

a behavior that is purposeful and goal-directed with NO intent to harm, can be easily confused with instrumental aggression

Instinct Explanation “He was born bad”

a theory for understanding aggression that is based of the works of Freud (1950)

Premise: Aggression is an innate drive similar to hunger and can be regulated through discharge / fulfillment, and sports provide an acceptable outlet for it

Little evidence for notion of catharsis (need satisfaction)

Physiological Explanation “He’s got bad blood in him”

a theory for understanding aggression
Premise: Individuals are aggressive because of blood chemistry and / or brain dysfunction

Occasional evidence for it in the form of hormone imbalances but issue lies in the person having a choice in whether or not to act aggressively, not comprehensive

Frustration Aggression Explanation “things weren’t going well for him”

a theory for understanding aggression

Premise: goal attainment is blocked, aggression will inevitably result

Evidence does show that frustrated people are more prone to aggression, but does not consider alternatives to the choice of aggression such as increasing effort or focusing on alternative goals

Social Learning Explanation “He learned that aggression pays”

a theory for understanding aggression based off Albert Bandura’s work

Premise: Aggressive behavior is learned by observing others and having that behavior reinforced

3 components are modelled behavior (observing actions of others), direct reinforcement (rewarded / penalized for actions), and social comparison (exhibition of certain behaviors to fit into group)

Evidence being the Bobo doll experiment but the issue lies in the fact that people still act aggressively despite learning

Revised frustration-aggression hypothesis

a theory for understanding aggression that is correct, forming a model that illustrates frustration being a catalyst for emotional arousal and depending on whether an individual has socially learned cues concerning aggression —> increased / decreased chance for an aggressive act

environmental temperature, perception of victim’s intent, structure / state of the game, rivalry and familiarity

Factors / conditions that can increase odds of aggression

Social learning approach

an approach for controlling aggression that focuses on altering an environment due to the fact that aggressive attitudes are learned

Structural-developmental approach

an approach for controlling aggression that focuses on the development of an individual through three ways:

Moral (cognitive) development - growth —> person attains capacity to morally reason

Moral Reasoning - Decision process between right and wrong

Moral Behavior - execution of right or wrong appraised act

External Control, Eye-for-an-eye, “golden rule” / “altruistic”, External rules and regulations, what is best for all involved

Levels of moral reasoning

External control

First level of moral reasoning that states that an act is ok as long as I’m not caught doing it, pursues self-interest

Eye-for-an-eye

Second level of moral reasoning that states that a response is justified for the sake of retaliation or that everyone else is doing it, pursues self-interest

“golden rule” or “altruistic”

Third level of moral reasoning that states “treat others the way you want to be treated”

External rules and regulations

Fourth level of moral reasoning

What is best for all involved

Fifth level of moral reasoning

Trulson (1986)

a study focused on moral development that split juvenile delinquents into three groups learning tae kwon do with and without lessons in morals, with a control group playing sports. Results found an increase in aggression without morals and a decrease in the control group likely due to maturation and a substantial decrease in aggression in the morals group.

Interpreting, needing, choice, implementing

Moral Action stages

Cohesion

“a dynamic process that is reflected in the tendency for a group to stick together and remain united in pursuit of its instrumental objectives and or for the satisfaction of member affective needs” (Carron, Brawley, and Widmeyer, 1998)

Attractiveness of a group (individual’s desire for interpersonal interactions with other group members and a desire to be involved in the group’s activities) Means control (benefits that a member can derive by being associated with the group)

Two forces that act on members in a group

multidimensional (many factors to why team sticks together)

dynamic (cohesion can change over time)

Instrumental (groups are created for a purpose)

affective (social interactions between members produce feelings)

Cohesion is

Carron’s Conceptual Model of Cohesion

A model for cohesion that outlines 4 major antecedents that affect development of cohesion in sport: Environmental —> Personal / Leadership —> Team Factors also environmental —> Team Factors

Task Cohesion

A type of cohesion that reflects the degree in which members of a group work together to achieve common goals

Social Cohesion

A type of cohesion that reflects the degree to which members of a group like each other and enjoy one another’s company

Age and gender

two most important characteristics concerning personal factors of cohesion

Collective efficacy

a group’s shared belief in its conjoint capabilities to organize and execute the courses of action required to produce given levels of attainment

Group environment questionnaire (GEQ)

best way to measure cohesion by splitting an member’s perception into four different areas Attraction to Group (task and social), Group Integration (task and social)

Sociogram

a tool to measure social cohesion by disclosing affiliation and attraction among group members

Carron et al. 2022

study that found that more cohesiveness is related to better performance in both coactive and interactive sports, interactive tends to be higher than coactive however

Factors for enhancing cohesion in an exercise setting

distinctiveness, individual positions, group norms, individual sacrifices, interaction and communication

Factors for enhancing cohesion in sport settings

Team structure, team environment, team processes

Veach and May (2005)

developed a model (MAPS) to help guide building of sport teams

Mission

Assessment

Plan

Systemic Evaluation