Exam One Pschology

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Empirical Approach

an evidence-based method that draws on observation and experimentation

scientific attitude

curiosity, skepticism, humility

humility

awareness of our own vulnerability to error and openness to surprises and new perspectives

curiosity

a strong desire to know or learn something

Skepticism

the idea that nothing can ever be known for certain

critical thinking

thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions.

Wilhelm Wundt

german physiologist who founded psychology as a formal science; opened first psychology research laboratory in 1879

Structuralism

early school of thought promoted by Wundt and Titchener; used introspection to reveal the structure of the human mind

Functionalism

early school of thought promoted by James and influenced by Darwin; explored how mental and behavioral processes function- how they enable the organism to adapt, survive, and flourish

Introspection

examination of one's own thoughts and feelings

William James

founder of functionalism; studied how humans use perception to function in our environment

Mary Whiton Calkins

first female president of the APA (1905); a student of William James; denied the PhD she earned from Harvard because of her sex (later, posthumously, it was granted to her)

Margaret Floy Washburn

First female to be awarded a PhD in psychology; 2nd female president of the APA (1921)

Mamie Clark and Kenneth Clark

Conducted research on self-identification of Black children and are well known for their doll experiments. First African Americans to obtain doctoral degrees in Psychology from Columbia University. Continued conducting experiments on racial biases in education

Psychology- definition from the PAST

the science of mental life

Behaviorism

the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2).

B.F. Skinner

Behaviorist that developed the theory of operant conditioning

Psychology- defined by a BEHAVIORIST

the scientific study of OBSERVABLE BEHAVIOR

John B. Watson

behaviorism; emphasis on external behaviors of people and their reactions on a given situation; famous for Little Albert study (with Rosalie Rayner) in which baby was taught to fear a white rat

psychoanalytic theory

A theory developed by Freud that attempts to explain personality, motivation, and mental disorders by focusing on unconscious determinants of behavior

Sigmund Freud

Austrian physician whose work focused on the unconscious causes of behavior and personality formation; founded psychoanalysis.

humanistic psychology

historically significant perspective that emphasized the growth potential of healthy people and the individual's potential for personal growth

Carl Rogers

Humanisic; self-concept and unconditional positive regard drive personality

Abraham Maslow

humanistic psychology; hierarchy of needs-needs at a lower level dominate an individual's motivation as long as they are unsatisfied; self-actualization, transcendence

Cognitive Psychology

the scientific study of mental processes, including perception, thought, memory, and reasoning

cognitive neuroscience

the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language)

Psychology- CONTEMPORARY DEFINITION

the scientific study of behavior and mental processes

behavior

anything an organism does, any action we can observe and record

mental processes

internal, subjective experiences- our sensations, perceptions, dreams, thoughts, beliefs, and feelings

nature-nurture issue

the longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors. Today's science sees traits and behaviors arising from the interaction of nature and nurture

natural selection

A process in which individuals that have certain inherited traits tend to survive and reproduce at higher rates than other individuals because of those traits.

evolutionary psychology

the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection

behavior genetics

the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior

Culture

the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next

positive psychology

the scientific study of human flourishing, with the goals of discovering and promoting strengths and virtues that help individuals and communities to thrive

levels of analysis

the differing complementary views, from biological to psychological to social-cultural, for analyzing any given phenomenon

biopsychosocial approach

an integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis

Neuroscience

how the brain enables emotions, memories, and sensory experiences

behavior genetics perspective

How much our genes and our environment influence our individual differences

Psychodynamic

A psychological perspective that analyzes how behavior springs from unconscious drives and conflicts

social-cultural perspective

how behavior and thinking vary across situations and cultures

basic research

pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base

applied research

scientific study that aims to solve practical problems

counseling psychologists

a branch of psychology that assists people with problems in living (often related to school, work, or marriage) and in achieving greater well-being

clinical psychology

a branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders

psychiatry

a branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders; practiced by physicians who sometimes provide medical (for example, drug) treatments as well as psychological therapy

community psychology

a branch of psychology that studies how people interact with their social environments and how social institutions affect individuals and groups

hindsight bias

the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it

Overconfidence

the tendency to be more confident than correct—to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments.

What tempts us to overestimate our intuition?

Hindsight bias, overconfidence, and our tendency to perceive patterns in random events.

post-truth

relating to or denoting circumstances in which objective facts are less influential in shaping public opinion than appeals to emotion and personal belief

group identity

The degree to which members identify with a group, and conversely, identify who is not part of that group, a process that affects the group's strength, cohesiveness, and survival.

Scientific Method

A series of steps followed to solve problems including collecting data, formulating a hypothesis, testing the hypothesis, and stating conclusions.

Theory

an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events

Hypothesis

A testable prediction, often implied by a theory

operational definition

a carefully worded statement of the exact procedures used in a research study

Replication

repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances

meta-analysis

a statistical procedure for analyzing the results of multiple studies to reach an overall conclusion

theory will be useful if it

(1) organizes a range of self-reports and observations

(2) implies predictions that anyone can use to check the theory or to derive practical applications

(3) stimulate further research that leads to a revised theory that better organizes and predicts what we know

descriptive methods

describe behaviors, often by using case studies, surveys, or naturalistic observations

correlational methods

associate different factors

experimental methods

manipulate factors to discover their effects

case studies

in-depth analysis of individuals or groups (ex. Phineas Gage)

naturalistic observation

observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation

Surveys

obtaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group

wording effects

when a specific word used in a question affects how respondents answer the question or the order of the questions

random sampling

a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion

sampling bias

a flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample

Population

all those in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn

Correlation

A measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other.

correlational coefficient

a number between -1 and +1 expressing the degree of relationship between two variables

negative correlation

as one variable increases, the other decreases and vice versa; correlation coefficient of -1 to 0

positive correlation

A correlation where as one variable increases, the other also increases and vice versa; correlation coefficient of 0 to +1

no correlation

There is no relationship between data sets; correlation coefficient of 0

Does correlation equal causation?

NO! Just because murder rates increase as ice cream sales increase, it does not mean that ice cream sales cause murder! There is just another factor that relates the 2 parts of this correlation!

experiment

A research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process

experimental group

In an experiment, the group that is exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable.

control group

In an experiment, the group that is not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.

random assignment

assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups

double-blind procedure

an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies.

placebo effect

experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent.

independent variable

The experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.

confounding variable

in an experiment, a factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect

dependent variable

in an experiment, the outcome that is measured; the variable that may change when the independent variable is manipulated

informed consent

giving potential participants enough information about a study to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate

Debriefing

the postexperimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants

testing effect

enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information

SQ3R

a study method incorporating five steps: Survey, Question, Read, Retrieve, Review

biological psychology

the scientific study of the links between biological and psychological processes

Plasticity

the brain's ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience

Neurons

a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system

cell body

The part of the neuron that contains the nucleus, which directs the manufacture of substances that the neuron needs for growth and maintenance.

Dendrites

a neuron's bushy, branching extensions that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body

Axon

the neuron extension that passes messages through its branches to other neurons or to muscles or glands

myelin sheath

A layer of fatty tissue segmentally encasing the fibers of many neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed of neural impulses as the impulse hops from one node to the next.

glial cells

cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons; play a role in learning, thinking, and memory

action potential

a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon

excitatory neurotransmitters

excite the next cell into firing