Intellectual Revolutions and Development of Science (Topic 1)

Topic 1

Scientific Revolution

A European period roughly 1550–1700 of major shifts in thought that transformed views of nature and laid the foundations of modern science.

Copernican Model

Heliocentric theory proposing the Sun-centered solar system; Earth and planets orbit the Sun.

Nicolaus Copernicus

Astronomer who proposed the heliocentric model (published 1543) challenging geocentric views.

Galileo Galilei

Key advocate of observational astronomy; supported heliocentrism; faced church condemnation.

Francis Bacon

Philosopher who advanced empiricism and the scientific method.

Isaac Newton

Physicist who formulated laws of motion and universal gravitation; central figure of the Scientific Revolution.

Carl Linnaeus

Biologist who developed a hierarchical system for classifying living organisms (taxonomy).

Andreas Vesalius

Founder of modern human anatomy; authored foundational works on the structure of the human body.

Denis Diderot

Philosopher/editor of the Encyclopédie; promoted broad dissemination of knowledge.

Enlightenment (Age of Reason)

European movement (roughly 17th–18th c.) emphasizing reason, science, and human progress.

Religion vs. Scientific Revolution

Tension where religious authorities often resisted early scientific ideas, sometimes condemning scientists.

Trepanation

The earliest example of brain surgery goes back around 6 thousand years ago in Cappadocia,Turkey. Surgical procedure creating an opening in the skull to relieve pressure or treat injuries.

Mummification

Process of preserving a deceased body; noted in various cultures (e.g., Philippines example in notes).

Thousand-year-old agricultural practice (Rice-fish farming (China))

Sustainable practice of raising fish in rice paddies; benefits environment and local communities.

Mesoamerica

Cultural region including Maya, Aztec, and Inca civilizations; cradle of early science.

Maya civilization

Pre-Columbian civilization known for astronomy, predicting eclipses, and Maya hieroglyphics; used base-20 numeration. First people to produce rubber products.

Aztec civilization

In central Mexico. Mesoamerican culture known for chinampa agriculture, chocolates, calendar systems, and education.

Inca civilization

Andean empire (c. 1438–1533) with advanced infrastructure, quipu records, and suspension bridges.

Quipu

Inca method of record-keeping using knotted cords.

Chinampa

Aztec system of raised fields for agriculture (floating gardens).

Aztec calendar

Calendar system used by the Aztecs for religious and agricultural cycles.

Inca suspension bridge

Engineering feat using ropes to span canyons and connect regions.

Teotihuacan

Major ancient Mesoamerican city known for urban planning and pyramids.

Lebombo bone

Oldest known calendar artifact with 29 notches; dated around 35,000 years ago.

Seismograph

Instrument for recording seismic waves; first developed in ancient China.

Seismology

Science dealing with earthquakes and the propagation of seismic waves.

Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen)

Father of Optics; advanced empirical study of light and vision; intromission theory.

Muhammad Ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi

Mathematician who introduced algebra and algorithms; term 'algorithm' derives from his name.

Ibn Sina (Avicenna)

Pioneer in experimental medicine; described contagious diseases and clinical pharmacology.

Jabir Ibn Hayyan

Early chemist; foundational work in alchemy/chemistry leading to modern chemistry. Also known as “Father of Chemistry

Golden Age of Islam

Period (11th–13th centuries) of major scientific and intellectual advances in the Islamic world. Mongols conquered Islam.

Aryabhata

Indian mathematician/astronomer known for significant contributions to mathematics and astronomy.

Brahmagupta

Indian mathematician who formalized rules for zero and arithmetic with zero and negatives.

Brahmasputha Siddhanta

Work by Brahmagupta detailing zero, negative numbers, and algebraic rules.

Maya hieroglyphics

Writing system used by the Maya for recording history, astronomy, and ritual.

Maya astronomy

Maya practice of predicting eclipses and tracking celestial cycles.

Origin of Species

Darwin’s 1859 work proposing evolution by natural selection.

Charles Darwin

Naturalist who elaborated evolution by natural selection after the voyage of the Beagle.

Sigmund Freud

Pioneer of psychoanalysis; explored the unconscious mind and human sexuality.

Psychoanalysis

Therapeutic method for studying the mind and treating psychological issues.

Egyptians

Egyptians are good in 4 fundamental mathematical operations and other mathematical skills. Have basic knowledge on Algebra & Trigonometry.