Key Events and Reforms of the French Revolution

What does Hermeticism suggest about nature?

All nature contains a divine and spiritual essence, and humans should strive to understand and explore this spirit within nature.

How does Hermeticism view the relationship between science, math, and spirituality?

Science and math are seen as means to reveal a spiritual aspect of life, with God's language expressed through these disciplines.

Copernican Revolution

Sun is at the center of the universe

Earth and planets rotating around it

transitioning from geocentrism to heliocentrism

What were Kepler's discoveries

1. Planets move in ellipses around the sun. 2. Planets' velocity varies depending on their distance from the sun. 3. The physical relationship between planets can be studied through mathematical equations.

Galileo

published a book asserting that the sun is at the center and unmoving

accused of heresy

threatened with torture

forced to renounce his beliefs.

What were Newton's contributions to science and his views on the universe?

He harmonized science with his religious beliefs, formulated the three laws of motion, invented calculus, investigated gravity, and studied the nature of light.

Descartes

'I think, therefore I am,'

emphasizing that the only undeniable truth is one's own existence

Cartesian dualism: The body is limited to the physical world, the mind is unlimited and free from mechanical laws

Francis Bacon

Rejected reliance on ancient authorities

promoted the collection of data

believed scientific conclusions should be reached through inductive reasoning.

John Locke

Brain is a blank slate filled with reason through experiences

Education shapes beliefs and behaviors

natural rights

social contract (people give away sovereignty …)

Montesquieu

Checks and balances —prevents tyranny and preserves liberty

Voltaire

Criticized French Catholic intolerance

idealized England for its greater individual freedom

freedom of religion, expression, and separation of church and state

Diderot

Edited the Encyclopedia which aimed to enhance human knowledge and overturn barriers to reason

Adam Smith

Laissez-faire — advocates for limited government involvement in the economy, allowing self-interest to drive wealth production.

Rousseau

People are originally free and equal, but inequality arises with private property, necessitating laws for the common good and general will.

People give up personal freedom for the benefit of society

law made by the people for the people

What is enlightened absolutism?

Rule by a well-educated, enlightened monarch who enacts reforms like religious toleration and freedom of speech.

What were Beccaria's ideas on legal reform?

Laws should create order, prevent future crimes, be just and fair, and he opposed the death penalty.

Neoplatonism

Plato—encourages seeking deeper understanding beyond appearances, using mathematics to comprehend God's world.

What happened to Giordano Bruno for his beliefs?

He was burned at the stake for asserting that the universe is infinite.

Who was Paracelsus and what was his contribution?

A leading figure in chemistry and medicine who rejected the notion of illness caused by spirits, focusing instead on chemical imbalances.

What new methodology emerged during the Enlightenment?

A shift away from reliance on old authorities, encouraging questioning of everything, including religion and the Bible.

What does the Enlightenment suggest about history?

It is viewed as a story of progress where humans strive to advance, with laws made for the people, allowing rebellion if needs are unmet.

Robert Owen

• Created socialist communities in America, specifically New Lanark 

• Women had equal participation in government

• Children raised as a community

• Failed bc of economic difficulties and disagreements

• Marx and Engels’ views on history and class

• Wrote the Communist Manifesto

• History is shaped by economic and social factors 

• Haves (exploit) and have-nots (exploited) constantly struggle against each other bc of their economic differences and the exploitation. Socialism -> end the class division and conflict

What was the Tennis Court Oath?

A pledge made by members of the National Assembly in 1789 to not disband until a new constitution was established.

What significant action did the National Assembly take on August 4th?

They abolished feudal privileges and the old regime.

Civil Constitution of the Clergy

A law that put the Catholic Church under state control, requiring clergy to swear loyalty to the state and leading to a split between revolutionaries and devout Catholics.

What happened to church property during the French Revolution?

Church land was confiscated, and the church was nationalized.

Danton

Called for moderation during the Reign of Terror

was executed

which contributed to the downfall of Robespierre

What was the outcome of the Reign of Terror?

It led to the establishment of the White Terror and a backlash against the radical Jacobins.

What were the reforms to Church-State relations during the constitutional monarchy?

Church land was confiscated, convents and monasteries were dissolved, and the state prohibited taking religious vows.

What was the National Convention's stance on the Catholic Church?

They eliminated relations with the Catholic Church and sold or repurposed church property.

What was the Committee of Public Safety?

A governing body during the Revolution that oversaw the Reign of Terror and dealt with internal and external threats.

the Law of Maximum (reign of terror)

Set price controls on essential goods during the Revolution to combat inflation and food shortages.

What was the Levee en masse?

A mass conscription of French citizens into the military, promoting patriotism and nationalism.

What was Napoleon's coup d'état on the Directory?

A sudden overthrow of the Directory in 1799, leading to Napoleon's rise to power.

Napoleon laws as First Consul?

ended democracy

welcomed former regime officials

abolished serfdom

established property rights and legal equality.

Napoleonic Code?

• Legal equality 

• Careers based on talent

• Men authority over women

• Banned strikes and unions

• Rejected liberties

What was the Continental System?

A blockade against Britain intended to weaken its economy, which ultimately backfired and caused resentment towards Napoleon.

What were the consequences of the Continental System?

It led to discontent and uprisings against Napoleon, drained resources, and caused suffering in port cities reliant on commerce.

What was the Reign of Terror?

A period during the French Revolution characterized by extreme political repression and mass executions of perceived enemies.

What was the role of education during the National Convention?

Education became a state responsibility, reflecting the government's control over family life.

What was the conflict between Girondins and Jacobins?

A political struggle during the Revolution where Girondins favored moderate policies and Jacobins pushed for radical changes.

Vendee revolts

Uprisings against the radical Republic

suppressed by the Jacobins who sought to eliminate all opposition and thus started the reign of terror

How did Napoleon's policies affect workers' rights?

He banned strikes and unions, rejecting liberties in favor of maintaining order and control.

Erich Maria Remarque

• All Quiet on the Western Front

• Existential despair and loss of meaning in modern warfare

• Trench warfare, horrors of war

Father Georgi Gapon

• Russian Orthodox priest and political activis

• played a key role in the events leading up to the 1905 Russian Revolution

• founded the Assembly of Russian Factory and Mill Workers in St. Petersburg

  • Aimed to improve workers’ conditions and promote loyalty to the Tsar

  • Became a major voice for workers' grievances

• Organized the peaceful protest which would become Bloody Sunday

Jackson Pollock and existentialism

• • Famous for his drip technique of painting

  • Existentialism: existence, freedom, and choice. 

    • meaning must be created rather than found

    • A sense of alienation or absurdity in life

    • The universe has no meaning, make the meaning yourself

  • Connection: spontaneous technique and artistic freedom. Non-traditional and instinctive. Being honest with oneself.

  • Process over product

Solidarity in Poland

• Strikes against lack of consumer goods and low wages

• Solidarity forms and asks for more liberal rights, higher wages, and independent unions through STRIKES

• Gains a bunch of influence

• A communist party outlawed it

• Due to even more dissent and unrest elections are made and Solidarity gains control

• No violence used

• Hungary and Czechia (velvet revolution) also peaceful revolutions

Realism

• Show the world as it truly is, without idealization or exaggeration

• Focus on everyday life and ordinary people

• Detailed, unromantic depictions of work, poverty, family, and social issues

• A reaction against Romanticism, which emphasized emotion and fantasy

Impressionism

• Capture a fleeting impression of a scene — especially how light, color, and movement appear in a moment

• Loose, visible brushstrokes

• Outdoor scenes and natural light (plein air painting)

• Interest in how things look, not precise details

• Focused on mood, atmosphere, and perception

Expressionism

• Express inner emotion and psychological truth, often through distortion or exaggeration

• Bold colors, distorted shapes, and emotional intensity

• Focus on subjective experience, often involving fear, anxiety, or alienation

• Less about depicting the outside world accurately; more about how it feels inside