Psychology Exam 1

Wundt

father of psychology; believed consciousness could be broken down into thoughts, experiences, emotions, and other basic elements; first to bring objectivity to psychology

Consciousness

the state of being aware of external events

Objective introspection

the process of objectively examining and measuring one's own thoughts and mental activities

Structuralism

the study of the structure of the mind; every experience can be broken down into its individual emotions and sensation; created by Titchener

Washburn

first woman to receive a PhD in psychology, published The Animal Mind

Functionalism

the study of how the mind allows people to adapt, live, work, and play; created by William James

Gestalt psychology

the study of patterns and whole figures rather than observing individual elements

Freud

focused on the unconscious mind and suppressed feelings and memories; stressed the importance of early childhood experiences; developed psychoanalysis

Unconscious

part of the mind into which we push all of our threatening urges and desires; proposed by Freud

Pavlov

conditioned responses, dogs salivation experiment

Behaviorism

science of behavior that only focuses on observable behavior; championed by Watson

Watson

believed that all behavior is learned; "Little Albert" experiment; all behavior is a result of a stimulus-response relationship

Psychodynamic

focused on the development of a sense of self, social and interpersonal relationships, and the discovery of other motivations behind a person's behavior other than sexual motivations

Behavioral

behavioral responses are reinforced; developed by Skinner

Humanistic

people have free will and strive for self-actualization

Self-actualization

the achievement of one's own full potential

Cognitive

focuses on how people think, remember, store, and use information; conditioned stimuli provide information about the coming of the unconditioned stimulus

Sociocultural

combines the study of groups, social roles, and rules of social actions and relationships and the study of cultural norms, values, and expectations

Biopsychological

the study of the biological bases of behavior and mental processes; behavior is seen as a direct result of events in the body due to things like hormones, heredity, brain chemicals, tumors, and diseases

Evolutionary

focuses on the biological bases for universal mental characteristic that all humans share; seeks to explain general mental strategies and traits

Basic research

research for the sake of research

Applied research

research is aimed at answering real-world, practical problems

Critical thinking

making reasoned judgments; the ability to ask and seek answers for critical questions at the right time

Naturalistic observation

watch animals or people behave in their normal environment

Laboratory observation

observing animals or people in a controlled setting

Case study

one individual is studied in great detail over a period of time

Surveys

researchers ask participants a series of questions to gather information

Nervous system

a network of cells that carries information to and from all parts of the body

Biological psychology or behavioral neuroscience

the branch of neuroscience that focuses on the biological bases of psychological processes, behavior, and learning

Neuron

the specialized cell in the nervous system the receives and sends messages within that system; generates and transmits information; gets information from dendrites

Dendrites

parts of the neuron that receive messages from other cells; structure looks similar to a tree; attached to the soma; either fires or doesn’t fire

Soma

cell body; part of the cell that contains the nucleus and keeps the cell alive and functioning

Axon

a fiber attached to the soma; carries messages out to other cells; where neural impulses are generated and perpetuated

Axon terminals

ends of axonal branches that are responsible for communicating with other nerve cells

Glial cells

help maintain homeostasis, provide support for the neurons to grow on and around, deliver nutrients to neurons, produce myelin to coat axons, clean up waste products and dead neurons, influence information processing, and influence the generation of new neurons during prenatal development; oligodendrocytes and Schwann cells

Oligodendrocytes

produce myelin for the neurons in the brain and spinal cord (central nervous system)

Schwann cells

produce myelin for the neurons of the body (peripheral nervous system)

Myelin

fatty substances that coat the axons to insulate, protect, and speed up the neural impulse; allows signal to jump from node to node

Tracts

bundles of axons in the central nervous system

Nerves

bundles of axons in the peripheral nervous system

Resting potential

state of the neuron when not firing a neural impulse

Action potential

release of the neural impulse, consisting of a reversal of the electrical charge within the axon

Neurotransmitters

chemical found in the synaptic vesicles that, when released, has an effect on the next cell

Synapse

microscopic fluid-filled space between the axon terminal of one cell and the dendrites or soma of the next cell

Receptor sites

proteins that allow only particular molecules of a certain shape to fit into it

Excitatory synapses

neurotransmitters causes the receiving cell to fire

Inhibitory synapses

neurotransmitters causes the receiving cell to stop firing

Acetylcholine

the first identified neurotransmitter; found at the synapses between neurons and muscle cells

Antagonist

a chemical substance that blocks or reduces the effects of a neurotransmitter

Agonist

a chemical substance that mimics or enhances the effects of a neurotransmitter

Serotonin

sleep, impulsivity, aggression appetite, mood (too much -\> depression, too little -\> euphoria, MDMA)

Dopamine

learning, attention, movement (too much -\> schizophrenia, too little -\> parkinson’s)

Glutamate

plays an important role in learning and memory; major excitatory neurotransmitter

GABA

gamma-aminobutyric acid; most common inhibitory neurotransmitter

Neuropeptides

can serve as neurotransmitters or hormones or influence the action of other neurotransmitters

Reuptake

process by which neurotransmitters are taken back into the synaptic vesicles

Lesioning

deliberately damaging part of the brain with an electrode, after which they test the animal to see what has happened to its abilities

Brain stimulation

temporarily disrupt or enhance the normal function of specific brain areas through electrical stimulation and then studying the resulting changes in behavior or cognition

Deep brain stimulation

stimulating specific deep-brain areas by sending impulses to electrodes implanted in the brain; used to treat things like seizure disorders, chronic pain, and possibly psychiatric disorders

Optogenetics

activating neurons with light rather than with electricity

Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)

magnetic pulses are applied to the cortex, stimulating neurons in the targeted area of the cortex; when pulses are applied in a repetitive fashion it is known as repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS)

Computed tomography (CT)

imaging of the brain done using a series of X-rays of the brain aided by a computer

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

imaging of the brain done using radio waves and magnetic fields of the body to produce detailed images of the brain

Diffusion tensor imaging

uses MRI technology to measure connectivity in the brain by imaging white matter tracts

Electroencephalogram (EEG)

a recording of electrical activity of large groups of cortical neurons just below the skull; different waves are associated with different brain activity

Event-related potentials (ERPs)

multiple presentations of a stimulus are measured and then averaged, measuring the response of the brain related to the stimulus event

Magnetoencephalography (MEG)

detects small magnetic fields generated by the electrical activity of neurons

Positron Emission Tomography (PET)

brain imaging method in which a radioactive sugar is injected into the subject and a computer compiles a color-coded image of the activity of the brain

Functional MRI (fMRI)

MRI-based brain imaging method that allows for functional examination of brain areas through changes in brain oxygenation

Near-infrared spectroscopy (NRIS)

functional brain imaging method that measures brain activity by using infrared light to determine changes in blood oxygen levels in the brain

Medulla

at the top of the spinal column; controls autonomic functions like heartbeat, breathing, and swallowing; where sensory nerves coming from each side of the body cross over (hindbrain)

Pons

where motor nerves cross over from the brain to the body; coordinates movements of the left and right sides of the body; influences sleep, dreaming, arousal, and breathing (hindbrain)

Reticular formation (RF)

a network of neurons; responsible for the ability to generally attend to certain kinds of information in their surroundings; allows people to ignore constant, unchanging information (such as the noise of an air conditioner) and become alert to changes in this information; keeps people alert and aroused (hindbrain)

Reticular activating system (RAS)

stimulates the upper part of the brain, keeping people awake and alert (hindbrain)

Cerebellum

controls all the involuntary, rapid, fine motor movement; coordinates voluntary movements that have to happen in rapid succession (walking, skating, dancing, playing an instrument); stores reflexes, skills, and habits (hindbrain)

Limbic system

brain structures located under the cortex primarily involved in emotions, motivation, memory, and learning

Thalamus

relays sensory information (hearing, sight, touch, or taste) from the lower part of the brain to the proper areas of the cortex and processes some sensory information before sending it to its proper area (limbic system)

Olfactory bulbs

located just above the sinus cavity; receive information from the olfactory receptor cells (processes smell) (limbic system)

Hypothalamus

regulates body temperature, thirst, hunger, sleeping and waking, sexual activity, and emotions; controls the pituitary gland, so it ultimately controls hormones (limbic system)

Hippocampus

located within the medial temporal lobe; forms long-term memories (limbic system)

Amygdala

responsible for fear responses and memory of fear; negative emotional responses (limbic system)

Cingulate cortex

plays an important role in emotional and cognitive processing; active during tasks such as selective attention, written word recognition, and working memory (limbic system)

Cortex

outermost part of the brain consisting of densely packed neurons; responsible for higher thought processes and interpretation of sensory input

Corticalization

the wrinkling of the cortex as it increases in size and complexity

Cerebrum

upper part of the brain consisting of the two hemispheres and the structures that connect them (cortex)

Corpus callosum

the thick band of neurons that connects the left and right hemispheres of the brain (cortex)

Bilateral

when information is transmitted to both sides of the brain; ex: hearing and vision

Ipsilateral

when information is transmitted to only one side of the brain; ex: taste and olfaction (smell)

Occipital lobes

processes visual information; located at the rear and bottom of each hemisphere (cortex)

Parietal lobes

contains the somatosensory cortex; processes information from the skin and internal body receptors for touch, temperature, pain, and body position (cortex)

Temporal lobes

contains neurons responsible for the sense of hearing and meaningful speech (cortex)

Frontal lobes

responsible for higher mental processes (planning, personality, memory storage), decision making, producing fluent speech, and controlling emotions; contains the prefrontal cortex (cortex)

Prefrontal cortex

linked to cognitive control and executive functions (our ability to consider future outcomes and control of our current behavior; ex: self-awareness, inhibition or self-restraint, working memory, time management, self-organization, and emotional self-control) (cortex)

Motor cortex

control the movements of the body’s voluntary muscles by sending commands out to the somatic division of the peripheral nervous system (cortex)

Mirror neurons

fire when an animal or person performs an action, and also when an animal or person observes that same action being performed by another animal or person

Association areas

areas within each lobe responsible for the coordination and interpretation of information and higher mental processing; help people make sense of the incoming sensory input

Broca’s area

associated with the production of speech and allows a person to speak smoothly and fluently; responsible for the interaction between frontal, temporal, and motor areas responsible for speech production

Wernicke’s area

involved in understanding the meaning of words

Left hemisphere

language, speech, handwriting, calculation, sense of time and rhythm, analysis; processes information in a sequence and breaks things down into smaller parts

Right hemisphere

perception, visualization, spatial perception, recognition of patterns, faces, emotions, melodies, and expression of emotions; processes information all at once and simultaneously