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Gradual speciation
Model that shows how species diverge gradually over time in small steps (large populations)
Punctuated Equilibrium
Model for rapid speciation that can occur when an event causes a small portion of a population to be cut off from the rest of the population (tiny populations)
Genetic drift
Effect of chance on a population's gene pool, more frequent in small populations
Ex: By chance, some individuals will have more offspring than others—not due to an advantage conferred by some genetically-encoded trait, but just because one male happened to be in the right place at the right time (when the receptive female walked by).
Founder effect
Event that initiates an allele frequency change in part of the population, which is not typical of the original population
Ex: a mexican travels to SK, marries a south korean, & have children
Convergent evolution
Process by which groups of organisms independently evolve to similar forms
Ex: For example, flight has evolved in both bats and insects, and they both have structures we refer to as wings, which are adaptations to flight. However, bat and insect wings have evolved from very different original structures. We call this phenomenon convergent evolution, where similar traits evolve independently in species that do not share a common ancestry. The two species came to the same function, flying, but did so separately from each other.
Allopatric speciation
Involves geographic separation of populations from a parent species and subsequent evolution
Ex: environmental conditions, such as climate, resources, predators, and competitors for the two populations will differ causing natural selection to favor divergent adaptations in each group. Isolation of populations leading to allopatric speciation can occur in a variety of ways: a river forming a new branch, erosion creating a new valley, a group of organisms traveling to a new location without the ability to return, or seeds floating over the ocean to an island. The nature of the geographic separation necessary to isolate populations depends entirely on the organism's biology and its potential for dispersal.
stabilizing selection
selection that favors an average phenotype, selecting against extreme variation.
Ex: In a mouse population that lives in the woods, for example, natural selection is likely to favor mice that best blend in with the forest floor and are less likely for predators to spot.
Directional selection
When the environment changes, populations will often undergo — — which selects for phenotypes at one end of the spectrum of existing variation.
A classic example of this type of selection is the evolution of the peppered moth in eighteenth- and nineteenth-century England.
Diversifying selection
Selection that favors 2 or more distinct phenotypes. Sometimes two or more distinct phenotypes can each have their advantages for natural selection, while the intermediate phenotypes are, on average, less fit. Scientists call this — —.
Reproductive isolation
Situation that occurs when a species is reproductively independent from other species
Behavior, location, or reproductive barriers may cause this to happen. Ex: Given enough time, the genetic and phenotypic divergence between populations will affect characters that influence reproduction: if individuals of the two populations were brought together, mating would be less likely, but if mating occurred, offspring would be nonviable or infertile. Many types of diverging characters may affect the — — the ability to interbreed, of the two populations.
Prezygotic barrier
Mechanism that blocks reproduction from taking place, preventing fertilization
Postzygotic barrier
Occurs after zygote formation, includes organisms that don't survive the embryonic stage and those that are born sterile
Reinforcement
DEF 1: continued speciation divergence between two related species due to low fitness of hybrids between them
DEF 2: hybrids are less fit than either purebred species. The species continue to diverge until hybridization can no longer occur.
Fusion
Reproductive barriers weaken until the two species become one
Stability
Fit hybrids continue to be produced
Natural selection
Reproduction of individuals with favorable genetic traits that survive environmental change because of those traits, leading to evolutionary change
Good genes hypothesis
Males develop impressive ornaments to show off their efficient metabolism or ability to fight disease, females choose males with the most impressive traits because it signals genetic superiority which will be passed to offspring
Ex: Peacocks
Macroevolution
Broader scale evolutionary changes that scientists see over paleontological time
(processes that gave rise to new species and higher taxonomic groups with widely divergent characters) (speciation)
Microevolution
Changes in a population's genetic structure
(connects population change over time) (small change)
Population genetics
Study of how selective forces change the allele and genotypic frequencies in a population over time
Cline
Gradual geographic variation across an ecological gradient
Ex: alligators & their eggs
Systematics
Field of organizing and classifying organisms based on evolutionary relationships
(researchers/scientists use data)
Phylogeny
Evolutionary history and relationship of an organism or group of organisms
(it’s just a hypothesis)
Analogous characters
Look different but have a similar function, characteristic that is similar between organisms by convergent evolution not due to the same evolutionary path
Ex: wings of dragonfly and wings of bats
Parsimony
is basic to all science & tells us to choose the simplest scientific explanation that fits the evidence. In terms of tree building that means that all other things being equal, the best hypothesis is the one that requires the fewest evolutionary changes. (events occurred in the most simplest yet obvious way)
Horizontal gene transfer
Transfer of genes between unrelated species
Rooted Phylogeny
Shows a single ancestral lineage to which all organisms relate
Unrooted Phylogeny
Shows relationships among species but does not show a common ancestor
Biological species
The ability of two individuals to successfully reproduce viable, fertile offspring
Phylogenetic species concept
How closely related individuals are evolutionarily, possessing certain defining or derived traits.
Hardy-Weinberg
states that a population’s allele and genotype frequencies are inherently stable— unless some kind of evolutionary force is acting upon the population, neither the allele nor the genotypic frequencies would change. Assumes conditions with no mutations, migration, emigration, or selective pressure for or against genotype, plus an infinite population.
p+q=1
p2+ 2pq+q2=1
5 events that lead to evolution: Pinky finger
genetic drift: effect of chance (small population)
5 events that lead to evolution: Ring finger
non-random mating
5 events that lead to evolution: Middle finger
mutations
5 events that lead to evolution: Index finger
movement/Gene flow (flow of alleles in & out of a population due to migration of individuals or gametes)
5 events that lead to evolution: Thumb
adaptations
Darwin proposed that natural selection occurs in an environment by __________.
heritable features that make the organism better suited to survive & reproduce
What is used to build phylogenies?
Scientists use a tool called a phylogenetic tree (diagram) to show the evolutionary pathways and connections among organisms
Order of taxonomic classification
DK (an artist)
PC (computer)
OF (as in “of” )
Genus & species (scientific name)
In other words, DKPCOFGs