Attachment

Attachment:

emotional connection between the infant and the main caregiver.

How is attachment displayed?

mutual affection, frequent interaction, a desire for proximity and selectivity

Reciprocity

a two-way interaction between caregiver and infant whereby they take it in turns to respond to each other’s behaviours/signals in a meaningful way

Examples of reciprocity

the baby stretches its arms, the mother picks up the baby

the mother smiles back when the baby smiles

At what age does Feldman (2007) suggest reciprocity increases in frequency?

3 months

Belsky et al. (1984) - controlled observational study of mother-infant interactions

* infant were 1 years old , 9 months and 3 months old
* age 1 were tested using “strange situation”
* found if mothers demonstrated reciprocal interactions, the more attached to their mothers the infant was.

Interactional synchrony

the caregiver and infant mirrors what the other is doing in terms of their facial expressions and behaviour

Examples of Interactional synchrony

a baby moving her head in time with her mother

the mother imitating the sounds the baby make

what does interactional synchrony help sustain?

Communication

Meltzoff and Moore (1977) - controlled observational study of interactional synchrony

* adult model displayed one of three facial expressions or gestures
* the infants response was recorded
* a relationship found between adult actions and the babies actions
* suggest it is an innate ability to help form attachment

Evaluation of interactions - Studies are well controlled.

* %%Strength%%
* usually filmed interactions
* can be analysed later by multiple psychologists
* inter-rater reliability (similar results)

Evaluation of interactions - Supporting evidence for imitation being innate.

* %%Strength%%
* Further evidence that support that the behaviours are innate
* Murray and Trevarthan (1985) - study using the mother a video monitor and other time a recording - baby became distressed
* there is an element of reward which suggest the behaviour is learnt
* strengthens the credibility of Meltzoff and Moore’s research that reciprocity is innate
* increases the validity of the theoretical explanation

Evaluation of interactions - Problems with testing infant behaviour.

* ==Weakness==
* difficult to test in a reliable manor
* Meltzoff and Moore’s and Brazelton’s observational research observed and measured facial expression and hand movements
* this is difficult to distinguish general activity and imitated behaviour
* Koepke et al (1983) failed to replicate Meltzoff and Moore’s experiment was unreliable
* Meltzoff and Moore argued that Koepke et al.’s research was less controlled
* Suggests that more research is required
* reduces validity of research

Evaluation of interactions - The purpose of synchrony and reciprocity

* ==Weakness==
* the research does not tell us the reason why such behaviours in caregiver-infant interactions occur
* the study can only describe what is happening
* psychologists disagree with this view and offer several other explanations and why they occur
* EG Isabella (1989) demonstrated the importance of interactional synchrony when he found high level of synchrony were associated with high infant-mother attachment suggesting that such behaviours are helpful in the development of attachment
* Le Vine et al (1994) reported that Kenyan mothers have little physical contact or interaction but still have secure attachments
* suggests that reciprocity and interactional synchrony in all cultures and that it is not necessary for attachment
* suggests further research is needed

Evaluation of interactions - Socially sensitive.

* ==weakness==
* suggests that research is socially sensitive (women)
* the implication of the findings suggests low levels of caregiver interaction leads to insecure attachment
* poses a dilemma for working mothers and is reinforces gender stereotypes that women should stay home.
* some people criticise the view as it discourages women from being women with career

Schaffer and Emerson (1964) investigated …..

stages of attachment development.

What did Schaffer and Emerson investigate?

Stages of Attachment - suggestion that attachment follows a common patter that can be divided into four distinct stages

Stages of attachment - Stage 1

* Asocial stage
* 0-2 months
* behaviour during this stage towards people and innate objects is quite similar
* Babies are also happier when in the presence of other humans as opposed to being alone.

Stages of attachment - Stage 2

* Indiscriminate attachment
* 2-7 months
* show a preference for human company rather than inanimate objects
* hey can discriminate between familiar and unfamiliar faces but can be comforted/cuddled by anyone
* not show stranger anxiety.
* Attachment is ‘indiscriminate

Stages of attachment - Stage 3

* Specific attachment
* from 7 months
* form attachment and will have a preference for a specific attachment known as the primary attachment figure.
* Babies can now discriminate between the caregiver and other people.
* The evidence for this is through the child’s behaviour:
* (a) the child will often stay close to his or her caregiver
* (b) the child will show separation anxiety when separated from their caregiver
* (c) the child will display stranger anxiety (distress) when picked up or played with by a stranger.

Stages of attachment - Stage 4

* Multiple attachments
* 8/9 -12 months
* develop strong emotional ties with other major caregivers - secondary attachments
* the mother-figure attachment remains the strongest.
* The majority of infants have multiple attachments.

What was the aim of Schaffer and Emerson, 1964 study?

to find out at what age attachments begin.

What was the sample of Schaffer and Emerson, 1964 study?

* consisted of 60 babies (31 males and 29 females)
* from working-class families
* Glasgow aged
* between 5–23 weeks at the start of the investigation.

What was the Method of Schaffer and Emerson, 1964 study?

* The researchers visited the babies in their homes, every month for the first 12 months and then once again at 18 months.
* The mothers kept a diary to measure the infant’s behaviour in relation to separation and stranger anxiety
* identify to whom the protest was directed.
* This was rated on a four-point scale.
* Separation protest was measured,
* Stranger anxiety was measured,

What was the results of Schaffer and Emerson, 1964 study?

* 6-8 months: Around 50% of infants showed separation anxiety and showed stranger anxiety a month later
* 9 months: Around 80% of the infants had a strong attachment to their mother by 9 months
* The researchers also found that feeding was not the most critical factor in the formation of attachment.
* It was noted that infants with the strongest attachment had carers who were more responsive to their signals and needs.Shaffer and Emerson called this sensitive responsiveness.
* 18 months: About 87% of infants developed multiple attachments to at least two attachments, with 31% of infants forming five or more attachments
* 39% of infants, the prime attachment was not the main caregiver.

What was the conclusion of Schaffer and Emerson, 1964 study?

* The researchers concluded that feeding or the amount of time were not the most critical factors
* The researchers observed that the mother had responded quickly and sensitively to their ‘signals’ (needs) and offered their child the most interaction.
* Shaffer and Emerson called this sensitive responsiveness.

Evaluation of Shaffer’s stages of attachment - High external validity

* %%Strength%%
* study carried out in home and observation done by parent in ordinary activities and reported later.
* this means babies behaviour was unlikely to be affect by the presence of researchers
* increases the chances of babies behaving naturally
* this increases credibility of the research in the discovery of stages of attachment

Evaluation of Shaffer’s stages of attachment - Low population validity

* ==Weakness==
* the sample was biased
* They used 60 babies from the working-class population of Glasgow
* the sample may not be representative of other social groups
* we cannot generalise the findings that attachment develops in stages to other social groups
* babies from more privileged backgrounds develop attachments in a different way, as a result of being cared for by a nanny or other privileges they would experience
* Schaffer's stage theory of attachment may not be universally valid.

Evaluation of Shaffer’s stages of attachment - Social desirability bias

* ==Weakness==
* Shaffer and Emerson interviewed the mothers about their children and some of them may not have reported accurate details about their children
* to appear like ‘better’ mothers
* cause a bias in the data that would reduce the internal validity of the findings
* natural behaviour may not have been recorded about the stages of attachment

Evaluation of Shaffer’s stages of attachment - Schaffer’s stages too fixed

* ==Weakness==
* Schaffer and Emerson’s account of attachment development is that it suggests that attachment stages are fixed
* This is because the theory claims that children must go through each stage at a particular age and must demonstrate particular types of attachment behaviour
* psychologists argue that attachment development is more fluid
* these stages may become a standard by which families are judged and could lead to them being classed as abnormal

What do psychologists disagree on about the role of the father?

* being a primary attachment figure
* men are not equipped to be a primary attachment figure or to develop the type of attachment bond that women can

what type of evidence do psychologist refer to when looking at the role of the father not forming close attachments?

biological evidence which suggests that the hormone **oestrogen** underlies caring behaviour in women and the lack of **oestrogen** in men is why they are unable to form a close attachment

What do psychologist argue that does allow father to form close attachments?

fathers can demonstrate sensitive responsiveness and respond to the needs of their children

What do some psychologists argue it the role of the father if not the caregiver?

Playmate

Mothers best suited as primary attachment figures.

* Schaffer and Emerson found most babies became attached to their mother first - primary attachment
* months later formed secondary attachments to other family members including the father
* In 75% of the infants studied, an attachment was formed with the father by the age of 18 months
* the infants protested when their fathers walked away – a sign of attachment
* fathers were far less likely to become primary attachment figures than mothers.

Father’s role less significant in child attachment type.

* Grossman carried out a longitudinal study of 44 families by comparing and assessing the quality of the mother’s and father’s parenting behaviour
* during the child’s early years to see if this contributed to the children’s attachment experiences towards the parents at six, 10 and 16 years.
* found that the quality of infant-mother attachment was by far the best predictor of later attachment style in teenagers
* This suggests that the infant-father attachment was less important.
* Lamb reported that studies have shown little relationship between the amount of time the father spends with the infant and the infant-father relationship
* This might be because men lack the emotional sensitivity that women have.

Father more suited as playmate

* Grossman did find the infant's attachment towards the father was related to the quality of the father’s play behaviour with the infant.
* different role in attachment – one that is more to do with play and stimulation
* Lamb found that children often prefer interacting with their father when in a positive emotional state and seeking stimulation but prefer their mother when they are when distressed and seeking comfort
* father being preferred as playmate, but only in certain conditions.

Evaluation of the role of the father - Gender stereotyping.

* ==Weakness==
* father’s role not suited to become a primary attachment figure - traditional gender stereotyping.
* Schaffer and Emerson’s (1964) study was conducted over 50 years ago
* decline of traditional gender roles in modern society, it could be that female hormones - higher levels of nurturing
* therefore women are biologically predisposed to be the primary attachment figure
* This is a strength as it confirms that such difference between mothers and fathers in the role of rearing

Evaluation of the role of the father - Fathers can also be suited as primary attachment figures

* ==weakness==
* can be primary attachment figures and adopt behaviours more typical of mothers
* Field (1978) filmed 4-month-old babies in face-to-face interactions
* Primary caregiver fathers, like mothers, spent more time smiling, imitating, and holding infants than the secondary caregiver fathers in the film
* behaviour appears to be important in building an attachment
* key to the attachment relationship appears to be the level of responsiveness of the parent and not their gender.

Evaluation of the role of the father - Biological difference supported by research.

* ==Weakness==
* Hrdy (1999) found that fathers were less able to detect low levels of infant distress,
* support the biological explanation for different parenting styles, suggesting that fathers are not equipped to form close attachments with their children
* biologically/societal determined and that a father’s role is restricted because of who they are
* fathers are not able to provide a sensitive and nurturing type of attachment.

Evaluation of the role of the father - Inconsistent findings in the role of the father

* ==Weakness==
* researchers are interested in different research questions when looking at the father-infant attachment
* researchers are interested in understanding the role fathers have as secondary attachment figures, whereas others are more concerned with the father’s role as a primary attachment figure.
* fathers can take on a ‘maternal’ role
* The findings from research will be different and inconsistent, which means that we cannot draw firm conclusions.

Evaluation of the role of the father - Father’s role not so important?

* ==Weakness==
* some researchers oppose this and believe that fathers do not play a significant role.
* MacCallum and Golombok (2004) found that children growing up in single or same-sex parent families where the father is absent, do not develop any differently from those in two-parent heterosexual families
* the role of the father is not important.
* one study has found that the absence of a father has various negative effects on children (McLanahan and Teitler, 1999).

Studying animals in the wild and in captivity might…

deepen our understanding to help develop theories and ideas on how attachments are developed and maintained

imprinting

will bond with the first moving object

What was the Aim of Lorenz, 1935 study?

investigate attachment imprinting behaviour in new-born goslings

What was the procedure of Lorenz, 1935 study?

1. Lorenz randomly split a clutch of 12 greylag goose eggs into two batches. One batch of eggs was hatched by the mother goose in their natural environment (control group). The other batch was hatched in an incubator, with Lorenz as the first moving object the goslings encountered (experimental group).
2. Lorenz next marked the goslings so that he knew whether they had hatched naturally or in the incubator. He then mixed the goslings up by placing them under an upturned box. The box was then removed, and the goslings’ behaviour was recorded.

What was the Findings and conclusion of Lorenz, 1935 study?

* e naturally hatched baby goslings followed their mother about, whilst the incubator-hatched goslings followed Lorenz
* naturally hatched goslings went straight to their mother whereas the incubator-hatched goslings went straight to Lorenz
* critical period in which imprinting needs to take place: a short period of time after birth, between four and 25 hours
* These bonds proved to be irreversible

sexual imprinting

an animal starts developing a sexual preference (i.e. choice of mate) based on the species they have imprinted on

Lorenz (1952) example of sexual imprinting (bird and reptile)

* a peacock that had been reared in the reptile house of a zoo


* first moving object the peacock saw after hatching was a giant tortoise.
* An adult, this bird would only direct courtship behaviour towards the tortoises.
* Lorenz concluded that this meant the peacock had undergone sexual imprinting.

What was the Aim of Harlow, 1958 study?

to investigate whether feeding or comfort was important in the development of attachment

What was the procedure of Harlow, 1958 study?

1. Harlow created two wire-frame surrogate mothers, each with a different head.
2. One wire mother was wrapped in soft cloth (‘towelling mother’), and the other wire mother was left bare without any cloth, just the wire showing (‘harsh wire mother’).
3. 16 infant rhesus monkeys, eight in each condition, and in both conditions both “mothers” were present
4. In the first condition, the harsh-wire mother had a milk bottle for feeding, the towelling mother did not.
5. In the second condition, the towelling mother had a milk bottle for feeding, the harsh-wire mother did not.
6. The amount of time each infant spent with the two different ‘mothers’ was recorded
7. frightened with loud noises to test for mother preference during times of stress. Researchers also observed the infants’ responses when frightened

What was the Findings of Harlow, 1958 study?

* All eight monkeys in each condition spent most of their time with the cloth-covered mother whether or not this mother had the feeding bottle
* monkeys who fed on the wire mother only spent a short amount of time getting milk
* frightened, all monkeys clung to the cloth-covered mother
* When playing with new objects, the monkeys often kept one foot on the cloth-covered mother for reassurance.

What was the Conclusions of Harlow, 1958 study?

* infants do not develop an attachment to the person who feeds them but to the person offering them comfort
* the effects of their early rearing continued. The monkeys exposed to the wire mothers developed more severe problems. The monkeys reared with wire mothers only were the most dysfunctional.
* wire and cloth-reared monkeys were socially abnormal; they were more aggressive and less sociable. did not display normal mating behaviour and did not cradle their own babies
* Harlow also concluded that there was a critical period for this behaviour. A mother figure had to be introduced to an infant monkey within 90 days. A mother figure had to be introduced to an infant monkey within 90 days

What have we learnt from these animal studies of attachment?

* to seek comfort rather than food would suggest that food is not as crucial as comfort when forming a bond.
* early poor attachment experiences can predict long-term social development

Evaluation of Lorenz’s study - Deepen our attachment to human behaviour

* %%Strength%%
* been influential in the field of developmental psychology
* imprinting is seen to be irreversible that attachment formation is under biological control and happens within a specific time frame
* led the developmental psychologist Bowlby to develop his attachment theory
* highly influential in the way childcare and parenting is administered today

Evaluation of Lorenz’s study - Supporting evidence for imprinting

* %%Strength%%
* evidence to support imprinting
* Guiton (1966) demonstrated leghorn chickens were exposed to yellow rubber gloves for feeding during the first few weeks, subsequently imprinted on the gloves
* Young animals are not born with a predisposition to imprint on a specific type of object
* Guiton also observed that the chickens eventually learned through experience to prefer other chickens over yellow rubber gloves
* strengthens the overall validity of Lorenz’s research into imprinting, however, the impact of imprinting on mating behaviour may not be as permanent

Evaluation of Harlow’s study - Controlled experiment

* %%Strength%%
* conducted in a controlled, laboratory setting
* able to control potential extraneous variables
* This is a strength because it means that Harlow was measuring what he intended to measure
* high internal validity allowing a cause-and-effect relationship to be established

Evaluation of Harlow’s study - Practical value

* %%Strength%%
* there is a great deal of practical application for its findings
* Howe (1998) reported that Harlow’s research has helped social workers understand risk factors in child neglect and abuse
* Harlow’s research has influenced the care of captive monkeys
* demonstrates how Harlow’s research has influenced society. As a result, this increases the relevance of Harlow’s research into the importance of comfort in attachment

Evaluation of Harlow’s study - Humans and monkeys are similar

* %%Strength%%
* may be possible to generalise the findings to humans
* Green (1994) stated that, on a biological level, all mammals (including rhesus monkeys) have the same brain structure as humans
* may be able to extrapolate the findings from Harlow’s research into attachments to humans

Evaluation of Harlow’s study - Lacks internal validity

* ==Weakness==
* criticism of Harlow’s research is the lack of control of the two ‘mothers’.
* two wire mothers varied in more ways than just being cloth-covered or not
* Infant monkeys could prefer the cloth-covered monkey as it was more attractive
* two different heads could have acted as a confounding variable, suggesting that Harlow’s research may have lacked internal validity.

Evaluation of Harlow’s study - Generalisability to humans

* ==Weakness==
* research into imprinting is that we cannot generalise his findings about imprinting to humans
* Lorenz conducted his study on greylag geese and humans and geese are physiologically different
* a human infant develops an attachment with their primary caregiver could be very different
* mammalian mothers show more emotional attachment
* As a consequence, we cannot extrapolate the findings from Lorenz’s research to humans and thus, this casts doubt over the explanatory power of Lorenz’s research on human attachment

Evaluation of Harlow’s study - Artificial study

* ==Weakness==
* conducted in a controlled, artificial laboratory setting
* not reflective of real-life situations and may have caused the monkeys to behave in an artificial manner
* is a weakness because it means that Harlow wasn’t necessarily measuring the real-life attachment formation and therefore the study can be criticised for lacking ecological validity.

Evaluation of Harlow’s study - Ethical issues

* ==Weakness==
* accused of being unethical
* monkeys showed great distress when they were removed from their biological mothers
* monkeys suffered lasting emotional harm, had difficulty forming relationships, showed distress in social situations and were unable to communicate with other monkeys


* can be justified in terms of the significant effect it had on our understanding of attachment


* suggests that the benefits of some animal research may outweigh the costs


* argue the study doesn’t really tell us anything about the formation of human attachments


* lack of generalisability from this research makes Harlow’s study even more unethical

At what age do babies begin to show preference?

seven months onwards

What behaviours did Maccoby (1980) idenitfy as behaviours that demonstrate that the baby has formed an attachment towards the mother.

* Proximity seeking
* Separation anxiety
* Secure base

Learning attachment suggests that attachments are…

lean’t through experiences

Learning theory suggests that attachment is formed through…

Classical or Operant Conditioning

What does “cupboard love theory” suggest

children learn to love whoever feeds them.

Classical conditioning suggests that babies form an attachment through

the process of association.

What is the food in a classical conditioning and what is the reaction?

Food is known as the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) because this stimulates an involuntary reaction for the baby to salivate at the sight/smell of food when hungry.

What is reaction to salivate when first presented food in classical condition

known as the unconditioned response (UCR)

what is the mother in classical conditioning before conditioning?

The mother, who feeds the baby, is known as the neutral stimulus (NS). Over time, the mother becomes ‘associated’ with the unconditioned stimulus (food)

what is the mother in classical conditioning after conditioning?

the mother becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS) to the baby

What is the reaction of pleasure after conditioning?

a reaction of pleasure to the baby, known as conditioned response (CR) regardless of whether food is present or not.

Dollard and Miller (1950) explained attachment through the process of

operant conditioning

what is the mother able reduce what in operant conditioning?

the baby’s physiological discomfort (e.g. hunger, thirst, cold, etc.), which the baby finds satisfying.

What is the food in operant conditioning?

a **primary reinforcer** (rewarding) the baby finds eating food a pleasing experience as this reduces the unpleasant feelings of hunger

What is mother in operant conditioning?

a **secondary reinforcer** because she provides the baby with food which helps reduce the unpleasant feelings of hunger, which is rewarding

why does a baby becomes attached to the mother in operant condition?

she is seen as a source of reward, Attachment-seeking behaviour (crying, smiling) brings positive responses to the baby, so such behaviour is more likely to be repeated.

What is crying in operant condition?

negative reinforcer

Evaluation of learning theory - Laboratory experiment

* %%Strength%%
* laboratory-based evidence to support the classical conditioning explanation for attachment
* Pavlov (1927) found that dogs would begin to salivate whenever an assistant entered the room was a learned response
* increases the validity of the classical conditioning explanation in the formation of attachment.

Evaluation of learning theory - Responsive parents, not food

* ==Weakness==
* research evidence against the learning theory of attachment.
* Schaffer & Emerson (1964) observed Glaswegian babies and found that 40% of the infants were most attached to people who did not feed, bathe or change them


* more responsive and provided stimulation through play and touch


* contradicts the learning theory of attachment because if this theory were correct, 100% of the babies would have formed an attachment with the people who fed them.
* suggests that the formation of attachment bonds is not based solely on food but more on the responsiveness of the mother
* weakens the learning theory as an explanation of attachment.

Evaluation of learning theory - Rhesus monkeys.

* ==Weakness==
* Harlow’s (1959) famous experiment on rhesus monkeys
* He found that the monkeys spent most of the time clinging to the cloth-covered mother, even though she provided no milk.
* This was especially true when the monkey was frightened and this demonstrated proximity-seeking behaviour indicating attachment.
* weakness of the learning theory because the experiment suggests that food is not a crucial factor in the process of forming an attachment.
* The infant monkeys were more likely to form an attachment with those who provided comfort and security.
* As a consequence, this weakens the explanatory power of the learning theory of attachment.

Evaluation of learning theory - Bowlby’s theory of attachment

* ==Weakness==
* Bowlby’s theory may provide a better explanation of attachment
* theory can explain why attachments form and outline the benefits
* Bowlby argues that attachments form because they are adaptive and promote survival.
* Bowlby’s theory provides a more complete explanation for attachment
* learning theory does not offer a full account as to why attachments form and therefore the validity of the learning theory in explaining the formation of attachments is weakened.

Evaluation of learning theory - Evidence on non-human research

* ==Weakness==
* support for the learning theory of attachments has been criticised on methodological grounds
* experimental studies have been carried out on non-humans
* there may be some similarities, there are also clear differences between human and non-human interactions when it comes to attachments
* difficult to apply the findings of experimental research carried out on non-humans to attachment in human beings


* Learning theory may lack validity because it presents an oversimplified version of human behaviour.

Evaluation of learning theory - Social learning theory

* ==Weakness==
* newer learning explanation based on social learning theory (SLT)
* Hay and Vespo (1988) suggested that parents teach children to love them by modelling attachment behaviours
* also by rewarding them with approval when they display their own attachment behaviours
* babies have learned attachment behaviours as a result of their interactions, which fits with research on the importance of interactional synchrony and reciprocity.

What does Bowlby believe the formation of attachment is?

biological process and is innately programmed (in their genes) to display attachment-seeking behaviour for survival and reproductive reasons

Survival and reproductive value. - monotropic theory of attachments

* engage in proximity-seeking behaviour enable the mother to offer greater protection and safety than those babies that do not
* babies who display such behaviours increase their likelihood of survival.
* l. Attachments, therefore, also have a reproductive value.
* One of the innate behaviours that babies are born with is to display social releasers
* The aim is to provoke a sympathetic and caring reaction from the mother and thus increase their chance of survival.

Monotropy theory - monotropic theory of attachments

* babies will bond with a number of attachment figures that will vary in degree of closeness
* baby will have an innate drive to form a special bond to one particular primary attachment figure
* the one who responds in the most sensitive way to the baby’s social releasers, usually the mother
* avouritism towards one attachment figure is called monotropy
* the special formation of attachment between the mother and the baby must occur within 2½ to 3 years of the baby’s life, called the critical period
* an attachment will be unlikely to occur, which can have negative consequences on the baby’s cognitive and social development later on in life.

Internal working model - monotropic theory of attachments

* baby experiences with the primary attachment figure will provide the baby with their own expectations of what relationships should all be like
* proposed that the early type of attachment type that the child experiences will shape their emotional relationships later in life
* Bailey (2007) questioned 99 teenage mothers with one-year-old babies about their attachment to their mothers
* They found that those mothers who reported insecure attachments to their own parents were much more likely to have children whose behaviour implied insecure attachment.
* Bailey's findings support Bowlby's theory that a pattern of insecure attachment was being passed from one generation to the next.

Evaluation of Bowlby’s monotropic theory of attachments - Attachments have adaptive and survival value

* %%Strength%%
* has supporting research evidence that attachments are genetically programmed
* Lorenz (1952) - an animal version of the attachment, ensuring that the young are genetically programmed to stay close in order to be fed and protected from danger
* is the issue of generalising findings from animal research and applying these to explain human behaviour. As a consequence, caution is required in using this research evidence to validate Bowlby’s attachment theory

Evaluation of Bowlby’s monotropic theory of attachments - Evidence for social releasers.

* Strength
* clear evidence to support the existence and value of social releasers
* Brazelton (1975) asked mothers to ignore their baby’s social releasers
* babies became distressed quickly
* attachment depends on good quality care and the importance of responding to social releasers
* supports Bowlby’s ideas about the significance of infant social behaviour eliciting caregiving from adults and the role of releasers in initiating social interaction.

Evaluation of Bowlby’s monotropic theory of attachments - Internal working model

* %%Strength%%
* research evidence to support Bowlby’s internal working model.
* Hazan & Shaver (1987) designed a love quiz and found that securely attached infants tended to have secure loving relationships in adulthood
* This would support Bowlby’s continuity hypothesis, suggesting that early attachment experience can have an effect on relationships later in life.

Evaluation of Bowlby’s monotropic theory of attachments - Opposing research for monotropy theory.

* ==Weakness==
* Schaffer and Emerson (1964)
* longitudinal study
* They found that by seven months old, 29% (nearly one-third) had formed multiple attachments to two or more people.
* By 10 months old, this figure was 59% (more than half) and at 18 months, 87% had formed multiple attachments.
* These findings suggest babies do not necessarily have a preferred attachment figure, as claimed by Bowlby’s monotropy theory

Evaluation of Bowlby’s monotropic theory of attachments - Critical period.

* ==Weakness==
* Many studies, such as Rutter et al., have showed that a critical period is true to some extent, because whilst it appears less likely that attachments will form after this period
* a case study by Curtiss (1997) reported that Genie who was isolated and brought up by abusive parents up to the age of 12, did go on and develop a mild attachment behaviour to others.
* Tizard and Hodge’s study of adopted children found that even children adopted later than the age of 2 ½ managed to form attachment bonds to their new parents.
* This means that researchers now use the term ‘sensitive’ period, instead of a ‘critical’ period, suggesting that Bowlby’s original idea of a critical period isn’t completely correct.

what was the name of the researcher of Strange Situation?

Mary Ainsworth et al. (1978)

What was the aim of Strange Situation experiment?

The aim was to test and classify the different types of attachment that exists between the mother and the baby, using the 'Strange Situation' procedure.

What was the procedure of Strange Situation experiment?

* laboratory experiment
* 100 American babies aged between 12 and 18 months
* eight separate episodes - three minutes each
* baby’s behaviour was observed and recorded (controlled observation – the observers were behind a one-way mirror)

what are the 8 episodes of strange situation?

Episode 1: Mother and baby are introduced to the experimental play room.

Episode 2: Mother and baby are alone; the infant is left to explore and play with the toys.

Episode 3: A stranger enters, talks with the mother, and approaches the baby. The mother leaves discreetly.

Episode 4: The stranger continues to interact with the baby through play.

Episode 5: Mother enters the room; the stranger leaves discreetly. The mother comforts the baby if in distress. The mother leaves again.

Episode 6: Baby is left alone in the room.

Episode 7: The stranger comes back and attempts to interact with the baby.

Episode 8: The mother returns and greets the baby; the stranger leaves discreetly.

What are the 3 classifications of attachment from Strange situation?

Type B - secure attachment

Type A - insecure-avoidant attachment

Type C - insecure - resistant attachment