Units 10 and 11: Emotions, Stress, and Coping and Motivation

Emotion

A response of the whole organism, involving 1) physiological arousal, 2) expressive behavior, and 3) conscious experience

James-Lange theory

Theory that our experience of emotion is our awareness of our physiological response to an emotion-arousing stimulus

Cannon-Bard theory

Theory that an emotion-arousing stimulus simultaneously triggers physiological response and the subjective experience of emotion

Two-factor (Schachter-Singer) theory

Theory that to experience emotion one must be physically aroused and able to cognitively label the arousal

Spillover effect

When arousal/attitudes in one role spill into another

LeDoux and Zajonc theory (brain's shortcut for emotions)

Belief in a thinking high road to the visual and prefrontal cortexes, and a speedy low road right to the amygdala. Some embodied responses happen instantly, without conscious appraisal

What role does the amygdala play in emotion?

The amygdala is our emotional control center, particularly for anger and fear responses. The response commands are sent out from here

Lazarus appraisal theory

Our emotional responses don't always require conscious thinking: our brain processes vast amounts of info without conscious awareness

Figure 41.2

(See figure)

What are the hemispheric differences in experienced emotion?

When you experience NEGATIVE emotions (disgust), your RIGHT prefrontal cortex is more active than your left. Depression-prone and pessimistic people also show more right frontal lobe activity. POSITIVE moods and the human BASELINE are in the left.

Polygraph

A machine used in attempts to detect lies. It measures several physiological responses accompanying emotion.

How do we communicate nonverbally?

Firm handshakes and eye contact are confident and expressive; body language; hard-to-control facial muscles reveal emotion (ex. crow's feet \= genuine smile, inner brow lift \= fear)

What are some of the gender differences in perceiving and communicating emotions?

Women have more complex and stronger expressions, and their emotional responsiveness is also stronger. Women are also more outwardly empathetic.

Neo-cultural theory

Two factors are involved in facial expressions, 1) a universal neurophysiology in the facial muscles associated with certain emotions and 2) culture-specific variations in the expression of emotions. While most people in most cultures recognize basic emotions, some minorities don't

Paul Ekman (cross-cultural displays of emotion)

Ekman and Wallace Friesen found a universal language in facial muscles when comparing people from New Guinea vs. American colleges. Emotional categories span beyond shared cultural experiences

Facial expressions

A form of non-verbal expression using movement of facial muscles

Facial Action Coding System (FACS)

Explains how to categorize facial emotional expressions based on the muscles that produce them

Micro-expressions

A brief facial expression lasting under a quarter of a second, often involuntarily and revealing emotions not deliberately expressed

Primary emotions

Emotions considered to be universal and biologically based: happiness, sadness, fear, anger, disgust, surprise, and contempt

Secondary emotions

Emotions that some cultures recognize/emphasize but others do not, including blends of feelings or variations in intensity and nuance

Display rules

Social and cultural rules regulating when, how, and where a person may express or must suppress emotions

Facial feedback effect

The tendency of facial muscle states to trigger corresponding feelings such as fear, anger, or happiness

Emotional intelligence

The ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions

Stress

The process by which we perceive and respond to certain events (aka stressors) that we appraise as threatening or challenging

Stress hormones

Epinephrine and norepinephrine are adrenal, and cortisol is a glucocorticoid

General Adaptation Syndrome (Hans Selye)

Selye's concept of the body's adaptive response in three phases: alarm, resistance, and exhaustion

Alarm phase

Sympathetic nervous system suddenly activated; heart rate zooms; blood diverts to skeletal muscles

Resistance phase

Temperature, blood pressure, and respiration still high; hormones into bloodstream; fully engaged; body's reserves begin dwindling

Exhaustion phase

More vulnerability to illness and, in extreme cases, collapse or death

Figure 43.4

(See figure)

Phsychoneuroimmunology (PNI)

The study of how psychological, neural, and endocrine processes together affect the immune system and resulting health

B lymphocytes

Cells that release antibodies to fight bacterial infections

T lymphocytes

Cells that attack cancer cells, viruses, and foreign substances

Macrophage cells

"Big eater" cells which identify, pursue, and ingest harmful invaders and worn-out cells

Natural killer cells

(NK) cells that attack diseased cells (such as those infected by viruses or cancer)

How might stress affect cancer?

Stress does NOT create cancer cells, but a healthy immune system can destroy cancer cells better. Depressed and bereaved people have increased cancer risk, but not all studies reflect this

Coronary heart disease

The clogging of vessels that nourish the heart muscle; leading cause of death in many developed countries

Type A/B personality

Friedman and Rosenman's terms. A is competitive, hard-driving, impatient, verbally aggressive, and anger-prone. B is easygoing and relaxed.

Catharsis

An emotional release or cleansing of previously repressed affects connected to traumatic events. The emotions will resurface, evoking a response

Problem-focused coping

Attempting to alleviate stress directly, by changing the stressor or the way we interact with that stressor

Emotion-focused coping

Attempting to alleviate stress by avoiding or ignoring a stressor, and attending to emotional needs related to our stress reaction

How does our perception of control over our life influence our health?

An external locus of control can initiate learned helplessness, where we feel sad that bad events occur beyond our control and we give up. Control also links to economic status and longevity

Primary control

People try to influence existing reality by changing other people, the situation, or events

Secondary control

People try to accommodate reality by changing their own attitudes, goals, or emotions

How do optimism and pessimism influence health?

Optimists expect to have more control, cope better with stress, and enjoy better health. Their stress response has less elevated blood pressure, and they tend to get better grades or overall success. Optimism runs in families

How does social support influence health?

Social support calms us and reduces blood pressure and stress hormones, fosters stronger immune functioning, and gives us opportunities for "open heart therapy"

What is the influence of pet ownership on health?

Increased odds of heart attack survival, relieved depression among people with AIDS, and lower blood pressure or other coronary risk factors

How does aerobic exercise influence health?

Exercise strengthens the heart, increases blood flow, keeps blood vessels open, and lowers blood pressure. There is also a large antidepressant effect, reducing anxiety and depression

How might relaxation and meditation influence stress and health?

Mindfulness strengthens connections between brain regions, activates brain regions associated with more reflective awareness, and calms brain activation in stressful and emotional situations

What is the correlation between religion and health?

Religions often promote healthy behaviors, provide social support, and surroundings with positive emotions, leading to greater health and immune system strength

Positive psychology (Seligman)

The scientific study of human flourishing, with the goals of discovering and promoting strengths and virtues that help individuals and communities thrive

What are the predictors of happiness?

High self-esteem, optimism, agreeableness, outgoingness, close/positive/lasting relationships, engaging work and leisure time, active religious faith, and good sleep and exercise

Motivation

A need or desire that energizes and directs behavior

Instinct/instinct theory (evolutionary)

A complex behavior that is rigidly patterned throughout a species and is unlearned. Instinct theory views our instincts as the source of our motivations

Drive-reduction theory

The idea that a physiological need creates an aroused state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need

Homeostasis

A tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state; the regulation of any aspect of body chemistry

Incentive/incentive theory

A positive or negative environmental stimulus that motivates behavior

Arousal theory (Yerkes-Dodson law)

The principle that performance increases with arousal only up to a certain point, beyond which performance decreases

Figure 37.2

(See figure)

Maslow's hierarchy of needs

Pyramid of human needs, beginning at the base with physiological needs that must first be met before higher-level safety needs and then physiological needs become active

Cognitive consistency theory

Beliefs that are in opposition produce conflict. Beliefs counter to some behaviors produce conflict. Individuals are motivated to reduce tension created by conflict either by changing/modifying beliefs or behavior

Glucose

The form of sugar that circulates in the blood and provides the major source of energy for body tissues. When this level is low, we are hungry

Insulin

Hormone secreted by the pancreas that diminishes blood glucose, partly by converting it to stored fat

Lateral hypothalamus (LH)

When stimulated (secretes orexin) \= increased hunger, when destroyed \= will stop eating, even if starving

Ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH)

When stimulated \= decreases hunger, when destroyed \= body will process food more rapidly and lead to eating more ravenously

Ghrelin

Hunger-arousing hormone secreted by an empty stomach

Orexin

Hunger-triggering hormone secreted by hypothalamus

Leptin

Protein hormone secreted by fat cells; when abundant, causes brain to increase metabolism and decrease hunger

PYY

Digestive tract hormone; sends "I'm not hungry" signals to the brain

Obestatin

Produced by the same gene to ghrelin and also secreted by the stomach, but does the opposite and sends out a fullness signal, suppressing hunger

Set point

The point at which your "weight thermostat" may be set. When your body falls below this weight, increased hunger and lowered metabolic rate may combine to restore lost weight

Basal metabolic rate

The body's resting rate of energy output

Biological taste preferences

Carbs boost serotonin, which is calming. Chocolate relieves stress, and sweet is preferred to salty. This is genetic and universal

Cultural taste preferences

Japan loves natto but westerners love cheese. We tend to avoid unfamiliar foods, especially animal-based. Disgust works. Trying small samples of unfamiliar foods or drinks can open our appreciation

Obesity

A body mass index (BMI) of 30 or higher. Overweight is classified as 25 or higher

Anorexia nervosa

An eating disorder in which a person (typically adolescent female) maintains a starvation diet despite being significantly underweight; sometimes accompanied by excessive exercise

Bulimia nervosa

An eating disorder in which a person's binge eating (usually high-calorie foods) is followed by inappropriate weight-loss-promoting behavior, such as vomiting, laxative use, fasting, or excessive exercise

Binge-eating disorder

Significant binge-eating episodes, followed by distress, disgust, or guilt, but without the compensatory behavior that marks bulimia

What are the influences of set point and metabolism in obesity?

If weight drops below set point, brain triggers increase in hunger and decrease in metabolism. Body perceives starvation and then burns fewer calories, making it even harder to keep weight off

What are the genetic factors in obesity?

Lean people are more predisposed to moving around. Children's weight resembles that of their biological parents. Around 100 genes have been identified as each affecting weight in some way

What are the environmental factors in obesity?

Sleep loss increases obesity vulnerability. If a close friend is obese, our own odds of becoming obese triple. Worldwide, we have a problem with eating more and moving less

Affiliation needs

The need to build relationships and to feel a part of a group

Ostracism

Deliberate social exclusion of individuals or groups

Achievement motivation (David McClelland)

A desire for significant accomplishment, for mastery of skills, for control, and for achieving a high standard

Industrial-organizational (I/O) psychology

The application of psychological concepts and methods to optimizing human behavior in workplaces

Personnel psychology

An I/O psychology subfield that helps with job seeking and with employee recruitment, selection, placement, training, appraisal, and development

Organizational psychology

An I/O psychology subfield that examines organizational influences on worker satisfaction and productivity and facilitates organizational change

Intrinsic motivation

A desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake

Extrinsic motivation

A desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment

Overjustification effect

Occurs when an expected external incentive (ex. money, prizes) decreases a person's intrinsic motivation to perform a task

Leadership

An individual's ability to motivate and influence others to contribute to their group's success

Task leadership

Goal-oriented leadership that sets standards, organizes work, and focuses attention on goals

Social leadership

Group-oriented leadership that builds teamwork, mediates conflict, and offers support

Theory X-Theory Y

Theory X: assumes that workers are lazy, error-prone, and extrinsically motivated by money. Thus they need simple tasks, close monitoring, and extrinsic incentives to work harder. Theory Y: assumes that, given challenge and freedom, workers are motivated to achieve self-esteem and to demonstrate their competence and creativity

Testosterone

Most important male sex hormone. Present for both males and females, but additional amount in males stimulates growth of male sex organs during fetal development of male sex characteristics during puberty

Estrogen

Sex hormones (ex. estradiol) contributing to female characteristics and are secreted in greater amounts by females. Estrogen peaks during ovulation. In nonhumans, it promotes sexual receptivity

Masters and Johnson

Gynecologist-obstetrician (William Masters) and collaborator (Virginia Johnson) applying the scientific process to human sexual intercourse

Sexual response cycle

The four stages of sexual responding described by Masters and Johnson. 1) Excitement: genitals engorged with blood and swell, 2) Plateau: breathing, pulse, blood pressure increase, vaginal secretion continued, 3) Orgasm: muscle contractions, pleasurable sexual release, 4) Resolution: return to unaroused state

Refractory period

In human sexuality, a resting period occurring after orgasm, during which a person cannot achieve another orgasm

Sexual orientation

Our enduring sexual attraction, usually toward members of our own sex (homosexual orientation) or the other sex (heterosexual); variations include attraction toward both sexes (bisexual)