American Government

Articles of Confederation

America’s first constitution; weak central government; no taxing power.

Article I, Sec. 8

Lists Congress’s enumerated powers (tax, regulate commerce, declare war, etc.).

Article I, Sec. 9

Limits on Congress (no ex post facto laws, no titles of nobility, etc.).

Enumerated powers

Specific constitutional powers granted to Congress.

Article III

Establishes federal judiciary; defines judicial power.

Supremacy Clause

Federal law overrides state law.

Fourteenth Amendment

Due Process & Equal Protection; main basis of civil rights cases.

Due Process Clause

Government must follow fair, established procedures.

Equal Protection Clause

Government cannot unreasonably discriminate among citizens.

Thirteenth Amendment

Abolished slavery nationwide.

Citizenship Clause

Birthright citizenship for anyone born in the U.S.

Incorporation

Applying Bill of Rights to states via the 14th Amendment.

Justice as fairness

Rawls’s theory proposes a just society prioritizes equal basic liberties for all and allows social/economic inequalities only if they benefit the least advantaged, under conditions of fair equality of opportunity

Somerset’s Case

A landmark British legal decision ruling that slavery had no basis in English common law and that a master couldn't forcibly remove an enslaved person from England

Virginia Plan

Representation by population; favored large states.

New Jersey Plan

Equal state representation; favored small states.

Connecticut Compromise

Bicameral Congress: House (population) + Senate (equal representation).

Bicameralism

Two-house legislature to slow policymaking.

Bill of Rights

First 10 Amendments protecting individual liberties.

Twenty-fifth Amendment

Presidential disability & succession rules. The Vice President becomes President if the President dies, resigns, or is removed

Formal powers

Powers explicitly in Constitution (veto, commander in chief, etc.).

Informal powers

Powers developed over time (executive orders, persuasion).

Advice and consent

Senate approval of nominations & treaties.

Delegation

Congress gives authority to agencies to make policy.

Oversight

Congress monitors executive agencies.

Fire alarms

Reactive oversight triggered by complaints.

Police patrols

Proactive, routine congressional oversight.

Coalition drift

Policy moves away from original intent as political coalitions change.

Bureaucratic drift

Agencies pursue their own preferences beyond congressional intent.

Clientele agency

Agency serving a specific group (Agriculture → farmers).

Credit-claiming

The act of publicizing an accomplishment to make a group believe you are responsible for a desirable outcome

Position-taking

Stating one’s viewpoint to appeal to voters.

Administrative legislation

Agencies creating rules with force of law.

Administrative adjudication

Agencies resolving disputes like courts.

Administrative Procedures Act

A US federal law that governs how administrative agencies of the executive branch operate.

Marbury v. Madison

A landmark U.S. Supreme Court case that established the principle of judicial review, giving federal courts the power to declare laws or executive actions unconstitutional if they conflict with the Constitution

Judicial review

Courts decide constitutionality of laws.

Judicial power

Authority to interpret and apply the law.

“Least dangerous branch”

Hamilton’s claim that judiciary lacks enforcement ability.

Judicial activism

Courts striking laws & asserting power.

Judicial restraint

Judges limit their own power, deferring to the elected legislative and executive branches

Stare decisis

Following precedent, and looking back on other cases to make sure rulings stay consistent.

Majority, concurring, dissenting opinions

Majority = official written decision of court; concurring = judicial opinion that agrees with the final outcome or decision of the majority but offers different legal reasoning; dissent = disagree.

Opinion assignment

Chief Justice assigns the majority opinion when in majority.

Precedent

Previous decision guiding future cases.

Original jurisdiction

A court's power to hear a case for the first time, deciding both the facts and the law, rather than reviewing a decision from a lower court

Appellate jurisdiction

Reviewing lower-court decisions.

Standing

Must show injury to sue.

Ripeness

Case brought too early.

Mootness

Case no longer relevant.

Rule of Four

Four justices must agree to hear a case.

Writ of certiorari

Order agreeing to review a case.

Writ of mandamus

Court order directing a government official to act.

Writ of habeas corpus

a crucial court order demanding that authorities bring a detained person before a judge to determine if their imprisonment is lawful

Inferior courts

Lower federal courts (district & appellate).

Judicial independence

Life tenure; protected salaries.

Chevron doctrine

Courts defer to agency interpretations if reasonable.

Major questions doctrine

Agencies need clear congressional authorization for major policy decisions.

Loper Bright v. Raimondo

Case that significantly reshaped administrative law by reducing the power of federal agencies and increasing the power of courts to interpret federal statutes. 2024 case limiting Chevron deference.

Shadow docket

Emergency, unsigned Supreme Court orders.

Statutory review

A formal examination of a decision, policy, or action that is required or defined by a specific law

Texas v. Johnson

A landmark U.S. Supreme Court case that established flag burning as a form of protected speech under the First Amendment, ruling that the government cannot prohibit the expression of an idea simply because society finds it offensive

Public opinion

Collective attitudes of citizens.

Sampling

Selecting people for a poll.

Sampling error

the natural, unavoidable difference between a sample's characteristics (like its average) and the true characteristics of the entire population it's drawn from

Probability sampling

Every person has known chance of being selected.

Random-digit dialing

Randomly calling phone numbers for polls.

Measurement error

The gap between the true political attitude or behavior (like a voter's real opinion) and what a survey or study captures

Priming

Media shapes criteria people use to evaluate issues.

Framing

How an issue is presented affects perception.

Agenda-setting

Media tells people what issues to think about.

Party identification

An individual's long-term psychological attachment or loyalty to a specific political party

Gender gap

Women more likely to vote Democratic.

Socialization

How people acquire political beliefs.

Funnel of causality

Long-term influences → short-term attitudes → vote.

Issue voting

Voting based on specific issues or policy positions.

Spatial model (proximity voting)

Voters choose the candidate closest to their ideal point.

Directional model

Voters prefer candidates pushing policy in preferred direction.

Prospective voting

Vote based on future policies.

Retrospective voting

Vote based on past performance.

Economic voting

Reward/punish incumbents for economy.

Turnout

Share of voters who vote.

Habit / affect

Voting influenced by routine or emotions.

Electoral College

State-based presidential election system.

Duverger’s Law

Single-member plurality → two-party system.

Plurality rule

Most votes wins. Candidate or party has more votes than any other, but does not win the majority.

Majority rule

Must exceed 50%.

Single-member district

One representative per district.

Proportional representation

Seats allocated based on vote share.

Gerrymandering

Manipulating district boundaries for advantage.

Australian ballot

Voters vote on private ballots, that are printed and distributed by the government

Open primary

Voters choose which party’s primary to vote in.

Initiative

Voters propose laws.

Referendum

Voters approve/deny laws.

Recall

Process in which voters can remove elected official.

Bureaucracy

Agencies implementing laws.

Implementation

Putting laws into practice.

Regulatory agency

Issues rules to protect public (OSHA, EPA).

Rule making

Agencies create binding regulations.

Deregulation

Removing rules.