PSYC 6 Midterm #2 and content after

Two brain systems

thinking fast and thinking slow

System 1

the intuitive, automatic, unconscious, and fast way of thinking; automatic processing

System 2

the deliberate, controlled, conscious, and slower way of thinking; controlled processing

Priming

activating particular associations in memory; associations influence explicit behaviors

ex. an invisible image or word primes a response to a later task

Embodied cognition

the mutual influence of bodily sensations on cognitive preferences and social judgments; how we feel/experience the physical world influences our psychological conclusions

Intuitive management

a style of management that relies on gut feeling or a sixth sense, rather than on analytical or objective reasoning

Premonitions

a strong feeling that something is about to happen, especially something unpleasant

Automatic thinking

"implicit" thinking that is effortless, habitual, and without awareness; roughly corresponds to "intuition"

aka System 1

Controlled thinking

"explicit" thinking that is deliberate, reflective, and conscious

aka System 2

Intuitive judgements

Powers of intuition

Explicit memories

Implicit memories

Limits of intuition

Overconfidence phenomenon

Stockbroker overconfidence, political overconfidence, student over confidence

Overprecision

identifying too narrow a range

Dunning Kruger effect

The tendency for unskilled individuals to overestimate their own ability and the tendency for experts to underestimate their own ability.

Confirmation bias

a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence

Prompt feedback

clear, daily feedback

Heuristics: mental shortcuts

a thinking strategy that enables quick, efficient judgements

Representativeness heuristic

the tendency to presume, sometimes despite contrary odds, that someone or something belongs to a particular group if resembling (representing) a typical member

Availability heuristic

A cognitive rule that judges the likelihood of things in terms of their availability in memory. If instances of something come readily to mind, we presume it to be commonplace.

Probability Neglect

we worry about remote possibilities while ignoring higher probabilities

Counterfactual thinking

imaging alternative scenarios and outcomes that might have happened, but didn't

Illusionary correlation

perception of a relationship where none exists, or perception of a stronger relationship than actually exists

Gambler's illusion

attributing wins to skill and foresight while attributing loses as "near misses" or "flukes"

Regression toward the average

the statistical tendency for extreme scores or extreme behavior to return toward one's average

Moods and judgements

Good and bad moods trigger memories of experiences associated with those moods.

Ex. when we are in a happy mood the world seems friendlier, decisions are easier, and good news readily come to mind let bad moods take over and they prime our recollections of negative events

Perceiving and interpreting events

Our personal beliefs and attitudes can cloud our perception and interpretation of events in the social world

Political perceptions

political stimulus strikes two people differently

we view our social world through the spectacle of our beliefs, attitudes and values. Beliefs shape our interpretation of everything else.

Belief perseverance

persistence of one's initial conceptions, such as when the basis for one's belief is discredited but an explanation of why the belief might be true survives

Misinformation effect

incorporating "misinformation" into one's memory of the event, after witnessing an event and receiving misleading information about it

Attributuion theory

the theory of how people explain others' behavior - for example attributing it either to internal dispositions (enduring traits, motives, and attitudes) or to external situations.

Dispositional attribution

attributing behavior to the person's disposition and traits

Situational attribution

attributing behavior to the environment

Misattribution

mistakenly attributing a behavior to the wrong source

Spontaneous trait inference

an effortless, automatic inference of a trait after exposure to someone's behavior

fundamental attribution error

the tendency for observers, when analyzing another's behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition

Cultural differneces

cultures influence attribution error

western children grow up , they learn to explain other people's behavior in terms of their personal characteristics

people in east asian cultures are somewhat more sensitive than westerners to the importance of situations thus when aware of the social context they are less inclined to assume that others' behavior corresponds to their traits.

self-fulfilling prophecy

a belief that leads to its own fulfillment

Behavioral confirmation

a type of self-fulfilling prophecy whereby people's social expectations lead them to behave in ways that cause others to confirm their expectations

Covariation theory

the theory that people base their inferences regarding the source of others' behaviors on whether or not there is a consensus regarding the way one ought to respond, the distinctiveness of the response, and the consistency of the person's response across situations

how we interpret others. Traits based on external and the like, perceive what's causing their behavior besides turnover versus internal factors

Correspondence theory

is like a tendencies that we think people's behavior actually corresponds to their internal dispositions

we tend to think more people behave actually corresponds to their disposition and traits

Disposition

a person's inherent qualities of mind and character

Two theories that produce peoples behavior?

Covariation and Correspondence theory

Why can we infer goals from movement?

How do we perceive animacy? (principles)

self initiated movements, violations of causal physics (changing speeds, changing directions) coherent jointed movement and interactions with other objects

humans are really good at perceiving movements from random things that follow these principles of movement

Movement is valuable information to dictate goals and animacy of alive

Woodward Study

people look more at things that are surprising, unusual things

our minds are able to make inferences about the goals that other people have...

based on if they're doing something costly or not, exerting a lot of motivation of energy to do something

factors that affect and when behavior affects attitudes

attitudes influence behavior

attitudes influence behaviors

and behaviors can also influence attitudes

(cognitive dissonance)

boring experiment. lie, now you like the experiment

Robbers Cave Experiment

experiment which showed that even arbitrary group distinctions (camp teams) can cause a bitter rivalry and discrimination, thus demonstrating in-group/out-group biases

in-group bias

out-group

a social group toward which a person feels a sense of competition or opposition

Contact Hypothesis (Allport, 1954)

Regular interaction between members of different groups can reduce prejudice, provided that it occurs under favorable conditions

equal status, common goals, in-group cooperation, support of authorities laws or customs

Meta analysis for contact hypothesis

significant but small effect size, indicating that contact interventions reduce prejudice

publication bias

the tendency for journals to publish positive findings but not negative or ambiguous ones

Contact hypothesis

not much evidence to support it

shooter experiment bias

measuring reaction time of how fast people react based on race how they are primed

subjects need longer to identify the tool relative to the weapon, for to black faces

implicit associations

Implicit Association Test (IAT)

A computer-driven assessment of implicit attitudes. The test uses reaction times to measure people's automatic associations between attitude objects and evaluative words. Easier pairings (and faster responses) are taken to indicate stronger unconscious associations.

reaction times

tell us about the associations people have with black faces and white faces

dispositional attribution

attributing behavior to the person's disposition and traits

just world theory

believing in karma

situational attribution

attributing behavior to the environment

corresponding bias

the tendency to make a dispositional attribution even when a person's behavior was caused by the situation

Holding people accountable for their explanations

holding them accountable for why they think others behavior is due to their disposition. We can observe this reduced bias in that people start to think, Oh, actually, people can be pressured to read an essay or be forced or randomly assigned to read an essay that is not reflective of their own beliefs

What are the three factors? Are dimensions used to make inferences about other people from their faces?

approachability/trustworthiness

youthfulness/attractiveness factor

dominance/competence factor

What are the fundamental dimensions of social perception?

how we perceive people in general

warmth and competence dimensions of social perceptions

influences how we form stereotypes

people make judgments on how they look

snap judgements evaluate based on looks

warm and competence (kind of)

baby face consequences
attractiveness heuristic
untrustworthiness

consequences of inferences we make on peoples faces

inferring causality from movement

intuitive physics, inferring agency

high animacy high agency

based on agency how much movement is self initiated

Effects of making inferences of how trustworthy someone is based on their face

people would do better than not trusting at all in the experiment they would be better off

What is the best strategy to trust?

adjust ones trust based on environment

high trust environment vs low trust environment

Animacy

the quality or condition of being alive or animate

Causality

the relationship between cause and effect

causal attribution

linking an event to a cause, such as inferring that a personality trait is responsible for a behavior

snap judgements
cultural attributions
socialization

mere exposure effect

the phenomenon that repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases liking of them

ex me and geisel library

personal stereotypes

interactions with groups lots of errors

not enough interactions to judge a whole group

consensual stereotypes

if you combine like a ton of people's different observations of a given group, this is gonna be called the consensual stereotype. And the idea here is that all the individual errors that people might have are going to cancel out. So e.g. say, like, I think that some group is high on this trait. Based on my interactions with that group. But like Diao thinks that that group is low on that trait because of her interactions with that group. If we average across many, many, many people, those differences and our observations are going to cancel out.

cognitive dissonance example in that we want to keep our action and believe consistent, as consistent as possible. And when we must do a behavior, we have just our attitude to keep them consistent

Induced hypocrisy paradigm

a laboratory situation in which participants are asked to advocate an opinion they already believe in, but then are reminded about a time when their actions ran counter to that opinion, thereby arousing dissonance

Choice

we already prefer something from the beginning when we are asked to choose something

Accountability as a belief that reduces dispositional attributions

So even though they don't have a choice over their behavior, we're still like attributing making dispositional attributions. But when the subjects were asked to be, to hold their judgments are to be accountable for their judgments. The correspondence bias is way less.

being perceived influences correspondence bias

this essentially just showing that like asking people to be accountable for their judgments tends to reduce the correspondence bias.

that the more repeated exposures, so participants had more likely that they'd like the stimuli

mere exposure effect

the theory of planned behavior

intention is changed by three dimensions

behavioral, normative and controlled beliefs

intention as we talking two lecture is very important and it's one of the main factors that we can change and plan our behavior is we can know what our intentions are and it's constituted by three aspects

Conformity

A change in behavior or belief as the result of real or imagined group pressure.

Acceptance

Conformity that involves both acting and believing in accord with social pressure.

compliance

Conformity that involves publicly acting in accord with an implied or explicit request while privately disagreeing.

obedience

A type of compliance involving acting in accord with a direct order or command.

autokinetic phenomenon

Self (auto) motion (kinetic). The apparent movement of a stationary point of light in the dark.

mass hysteria

Suggestibility to problems that spreads throughout a large group of people.

normative influence

Conformity based on a person’s desire to fulfill others’ expectations, often to gain acceptance.

informational influence

Conformity occurring when people accept evidence about reality provided by other people.

reactance

A motive to protect or restore one’s sense of freedom. Reactance arises when someone threatens our freedom of action.

Miligrams obedience study

1. Subject and confederate told study on effects of punishment on learning. Subject = "teacher", confederate = "learner"; subject to punish learner for mistakes with shock

2. Sample 15 V shock. Shown shock generator: 15-450 V

3. Told to move one shock higher each mistake. Couldn't see confederate, heard responses via intercom

4. Experimenter used prompts to keep subject going.

5. Prior to experiment, Milgram described it to others and asked to guess how far they/others would go

Results:

- Prior: self ~ 135 V; none expected to go over 300; other estimates slightly higher than self

- Actual: only 25% dropped by 300 V; 63% went to 450 V

paradigm

a model or example

Persuasion

The process by which a message induces change in beliefs, attitudes, or behaviors

Two Track Mind to Persuasion

System 1: Peripheral Route; System 2: Central Route

Likelihood Model or Persuasion

High vs low elaboration

Peripheral Route

fast, unconscious, automatic, everyday decisions, error prone

ex. snap judgements, going along with group