Global History II - Midterm

Dr. Benson @Trinity

REASON, RACE, AND RUMOR

OK

What are the three gunpowder empires?

Mughals, Safavids & Ottomans

What is absolutism?

when the ruler has divine right and is the sole lawmaker! only God can hold them accountable for their actions, so they have some restrictions, but not many…

Louis XIV + 4 methods of maintaining rule (examples if possible)

French king, best example of an absolute ruler

1) nobles

controls, keeps them in the Palace of Versailles: taming their influence and capital.

Louis XIV keeps the nobles happy by giving them tax exemptions and other privileges in exchange for taking their pwr in gov’t.

2) intendants

public officials appointed by king, system gives the king more pwr in gov’t

3) sole lawmaker

Louis XIV never used Estates General (gov’t where three Estates meet to vote on issues w/ king)

Parlement (or Court) undermined by the king

4) control opinions

he influenced dictionaries, funded creative projects and universities to influence culture and thus, built a legacy!

Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet (4 parts + definitions)

definition of absolutism (“royal authority”)

sacred = divine right

paternal = fatherly, caring

absolute = no challenges

no coactive = sole power

Edict of Nantes

Louis XIV revoked the Edict (removing religious freedom for Protestants) — only Catholicism!

__ was Louis XIV’s nickname.

The Sun King

Scientific Revolution

Europeans built on previous research and made many philosophical “discoveries” (16th-17th C.)

important to note that most of these discoveries were made elsewhere before, history is just generally Eurocentric…

Nicolaus Copernicus

he took ideas, compiled them and introduced heliocentrism (universe revolving around Sun); universe not geocentric (universe revolving around Earth)

Religion vs. Heliocentrism?

It was heresy to say world was not geocentric, because humans were God’s perfect creation. Heliocentrism can not be… it contradicts the perfect geocentric universe.

Galileo Galilei

science and rel complement each other

nature/science should be trusted bc we can observe it with the senses God gave us

God gave us logic/reason… for a reason

church charges Galileo with heresy and exiles him

Science as a profession

seen as a respectable job, restricted to upper classes and men…

Scientific Method

First step is to observe. Galileo and Descartes both carry out this step and use reason and logic to support their claim! Galileo uses logic to prove how religion and science are compatible, while Descartes proves the existence of God. Both have to do with religion, interesting…

Was the Sci Rev revolutionary?

spread of knowledge, science as profession (PRO)

not new advancements, gradual change (CON)

René Descartes

French philosopher

Skepticism (assumptions are wrong, doubt everything!!!)

however, people start to question religion… Church faces challenges with authority

“I think, therefore, I am…”

His favorite subject was math & proofs because there is a clear right and wrong.

doubt everything except obvious truths that can be seen with senses… then, doubt your own senses and yourself

only consistency (in dreams) is your mind

if something can think, it must exist and have a soul! since no soul is perfect, there must then be a perfect soul and that would be God (existence proved)

Deism

new system of belief (NOT RELIGION) during Sci Rev

God = engineer, created world that can run by itself, no active part in makings of world

heresy to the Church that believe God is always present

Isaac Newton

proved religion and science to be compatible

claimed gravity was God’s role and that they were actually always present (thus, he avoided Galileo’s fate)…

Feudal Hierarchy

King, Nobles (Parliament), Vassal Lords, Serfs

English Civil War

Henry (would-be VIII) dies, so rulership given to Charles I…

because he’s shy (towards nobles as well), he stays removed from country

nobles get mad at the king avoiding them (insult)…

Charles I wants to be absolute ruler and pushes to be sole lawmaker

Nobles find him guilty of treason and imprison him. when he refuses to recant, they execute him (FIRST CHALLENGE OF DIVINE RIGHT)

Thomas Hobbes

tutor of Charles (Charles I’s son), fled England and goes to France

Hearing about Charles I’s death, he writes about a way to justify rulership without divine right

sovereign is massive, made out of his subjects

state of nature: power-hungry, need “foresight of own preservation”, endless war, inherently bad

safety is man’s primary concern; for security and. a stop to wars, humans decided to make the covenant!

Hobbes’ Covenant

a binding contract to tie subjects to sovereign, giving up some freedoms to have central pwr to protect community

commonwealth created, where subjects are bound to sovereign forever (inherited also)

no mention of God / divine right (because it didn’t work for Charles I)

main argument: because of covenant made by ancestors, people owe loyalty to their sovereign

Enlightenment

Euro building on Sci Rev (mid 17th-18th C.)

nature has the laws of science, religion is not the only answer! (deism, Galileo, etc.)

Spread of Enlight

universal education and literacy widen bc of printing press

information moves quicker, ideas collide

Salons

places where philosophes went, run by women

Philosophes

thinkers who debate political, economic and social change

John Locke

state of nature: inherently good

people are like tabula rasa → blank slates!

safety of property is man’s primary concern

natural rights: life, liberty and property

idea of personal property as a natural right

freedoms given up to form a government to protect your property

majority rules → democracy

people have the power (LEGISLATIVE) to overthrow ruler (sovereign ≠ permanent); if majority disagrees with ruler, Locke believes they can overthrow (but only if natural rights are threatened)

Locke’s Opinion on Poverty

He believes poverty is a personal failing, bc God has given enough resources for everyone…

for men found begging, recommends to conscript into military. for women found begging, fined (or parents fined). for kids found begging, sent to factory and beaten (believes kids are burden to mother, so it’s a favor).

Charles Montesquieu

French lord

separate branches (legislative, executive, judicial)

must remain separate for threat of tyranny

Voltaire

superstition and fanaticism = bad equally

believes people take Bible too literally

superstition gives others power over your mind, fanaticism causes you to be illogical, either way… it harms the community.

separation of church + state (religion removed from gov’t)

Immanuel Kant

German philosopher

“Dare to know!” → think for yourself

ignorance is bliss

public use of reason

spread literacy! (so all can use reason)

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

State of Nature: born free, but in chains of absolutism, strength = right to rule

Social Contract (like covenant) → people give up some freedoms for security + general will

no ruler, everyone is part of a whole

if natural rights are broken, social contract is destroyed (people can form new communities with social contracts)

Direct Democracy

people vote for every single law, no ruler

Rousseau’s Idea of Citizenship

Eligibility: literate, upper-ish class white men (pretty specific)

subject of monarch: no active role, no voting

citizen of D.D.: active role, vote for every law

no parties (private voting) → this way, true opinions are told

sovereign = general will of people

government = intermediary of sovereign + subjects

rel = morality + duty (still plays a role)

JJR’s Émile (ideal man)

the ideal man in JJR’s opinion

citizen, work = duty to society (not inherited)

agricultural + artisanal skills (some sort of production) = valuable

inheritance can be taken away, skills can not

JJR’s Sophie (ideal woman)

not a citizen, “made to please men”

women NEED men, while men just want women for desire? (not entirely true, but okay)

women must be educated to complement men → to be a good wife + mother

only educated on how to be useful to men… but still a step forward

JJR received criticism for requiring education for women → revolutionary idea

Kant and Racism

related skin color to value as a person

ignored any achievements, used science to prove white-over-black…

using observation to prove (white = bigger skulls = more intelligent) but really it’s fake proof

use barriers to keep POC unadvanced, no chance for education

Kant and Amo

African philosopher with PhD, not considered good enough by Kant, despite being smarter than other Euros

Kant discredited Amo solely because of his skin color.. and nothing else.

Diderot

French philosopher, anti-Kant

believed in right to property, but did not see slavery as property…

“all children of Nature”

natural rights for everyone! not just white Euros

What were the two parts of the Enlightenment?

The High Enlightenment (e.g. Voltaire, Locke, Hobbes) and the Underground (e.g. Grub Street)

High Enlightenment

first part = original generation

radical, something to say (Voltaire, Locke, Hobbes)

Le Monde

French for “the world” → the new generation of the high Enlightenment

not challenging ideas, joining institutions, royal censor = part of the system, not against the system like Montesquieu who had to avoid censors

CAREER AS PHILOSOPHE

Robert Darnton on Grub Street

some radical aspects of Enlightenment remain in the Underground. these unsuccessful philosophes write pamphlets about scandals and expose the aristocracy for money (power of rumors)

after you enter, you can not go back because your rep has been tarnished

they feel like they have been betrayed by Voltaire and other Enlight thinkers that promised natural rights (it didnt work for them), only JJR is someone they look up to

They were even able to write about the monarchy because Louis XV made a prostitute his mistress → easy to make up scandalous stories….

__ are pamphlets that Grub Street writers wrote scandals on to undermine the power of the aristocracy… and even the king!

Libelles

ATLANTIC REVOLUTIONS: FRANCE

OK

France’s political system in the 1700s was a(n) __ monarchy.

absolute

__% of the French population were illiterate peasants.

80

Peasants in France

pay taxes to feudal lord, life of struggle and randomness (global market w/ wine depends on nobles, local market w/ cereal depends on the absence of floods)

Louis XVI

descendant of Louis XIV

seen as “father figure”, center of France

Marie-Antoinette

Austrian princess that was married to Louis XVI

thrust into the cutthroat atmosphere of Versailles

spends time in a peasant farmhouse to act modest, but does no work… peasants don’t like her, to say the least.

Urban poor in france

peasants = countryside

urban poor = city (they are artisans, domestic servants, laborers…)

Bourgeoisie in France

the moderately wealthy, white, Euro

(like a middle class, just living comfortable life)

no privileges

Nobility in France

the privileged class

2 types: aristocrats that inherit their position and bought nobility that bought a title to move up from upper MC, looked down on by the aristocrats

see themselves as warriors despite only sending orders

huge wealth disparities among the noble class (the wealthiest bourgeoisie can be richer than the poorest of nobles!)

tax exemption = most desired privilege (reason why many bourgeoisie buy a title despite the treatment of the aristocrats

What was the financial situation of France when Calonne arrived?

Since they could not tax the nobles, they had to fund the wars they were in somehow (7 Years’ War, American War of Independence)

so… they raised taxes, got loans, raised taxes more… spiral of financial instability

55% of government spending went to paying off loans!?

Charles Calonne

he wanted to put a stop to the downward spiral

radical idea: no tax exemptions! (removing the key privilege from the nobles)

he first went to the Assembly of Notables (AoN), then the Parlements

Assembly of Notables

handpicked powerful members of French nobility

Calonne goes to them to bring up his proposal

they obviously refuse to raise taxes and remove their privilege

they ask to see the budget, but Louis XVI refuses (it questions his authority)

Parlements

Courts of Paris

They say no also and unite with the AoN against the king, accusing him of despotism for trying to remove their key privilege

Despotism

use of absolute power in cruelty

What is Louis XVI forced to do?

Bc the nobles are now against him, he has to call the Estates General (which Louis XIV avoided doing bc it undermines his own pwr)… he has no choice though

Estates General

First Estate: Clergy

Second Estate: Nobles

Third Estate: Everyone Else (Commoners, Bourgeoisie, etc.)

__ is the list of grievances that each Estate has, representing their section of the population.

Cahier de doléances

How is the situation worsening?

famines + droughts cause bread riots bc when there are no food, people get hangry

Estates General opinion on voting

Third Estate wants voting by head (individual vote for each person) instead of voting by group (one vote per Estate)… this is because they have more than twice the number of representatives

however, the two other Estates keep the voting by group

Restrictions for joining Third Estate

25+, man, own property (wealthy)

Emmanuel Joseph Sieyes

clergyman representing Third Estate

believes that Second Estate (nobles) are much more useless than the Third Estate

National Assembly

Third Estate want voting by head

so they leave the Estates General and create a new “National Assembly” where they can meet collectively (which the Estates General didn’t do before) and every individual vote counts

Clergy like the idea of meeting collectively, so First Estate also joins National Assembly soon

when the Nat’l Assembly planned a meeting, Louis XVI locked the doors to the meeting room (bc he wanted to keep it prepared for the Estates General); they thought he knew what they were doing and it was an act of defiance…

Oath of Tennis Court

bc they found the locked door, they meet in the tennis courts (only place big enough to fit both Estates besides the meeting room)

constitutional monarchy = ultimate goal (a constitution & king, but based on the people)

What happens next?

Louis XVI outlaws the Estates meeting together… but the Nat’l Assembly continues. Then, a lot of nobles decide to join the Nat’l Assembly. Louis XVI takes it back, abolishes Estates General and endorses the National Assembly officially…

What did the king do that sparked a lot of anger in the people?

The king sent mercenary soldiers to put down bread riots, causing a lot of nervousness at the foreign people camping in towns…

Louis XVI also fired lots of ministers from his Cabinet, including Necker.

Necker was loved by the people because he brought bread prices down and ended censorship… bad move, Louis.

Bastille Day

people want weapons for protection from the mercenaries

governor of armory surrenders, but a gunshot goes off

chaos erupts, governor executed

first instance of violence in the French Revolution

in response, Louis XVI brings back his ministers and troops.

Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen

National Assembly creates rights for the people

important to note that these are ideals that Nat’l Assembly hope for (not reality yet)

executive and legislative branch kept separate (king + voting for Reps that make laws)

protection of natural rights

Great Fear (also what was the response?)

food situation worsens, more bread riots, there are rumors that nobles are hoarding or even British spies

peasants burn down noble estates to destroy tax records (this way, they can’t keep track of the taxes)

nobles are freaked out by the mobs of people

in response, National Assembly abolish the feudal system

Louis XVI still gets ultimate veto power basically (so he retains some of his power as a lawmaker)

March on Versailles

people are upset, thousands of women hear of the veto power and think the nobles are corrupting the king. they march to Versailles and escort the king and his family to Paris (he had no choice faced with the mob of civilians)

Active Citizens

25+, men, property owners

Nat’l Assembly decide these active citizens are the only ones who can vote (not really fulfilling DRMC)

Nat’l Assembly view on religion

the Nat’l Assembly decide the Churchland belongs to France, they want to sell it for money to help financial situation

they also give Protestants equality, undermining church pwr in more than one way

Address to Nat’l Assembly by Society of the Friends of Blacks

abolish slave trade

can’t outright say “abolish slavery” bc too radical but its a gradual step in the right direction

points out DRMC goals = “free and equal in rights,” slavery is then a contradiction

Nat’l Assembly response to SFB?

any rights given to citizens do NOT extend to colonies, ensuring slavery is not abolished

Civil Constitution of Clergy

radical change to church by the Nat’l Assembly

church = government entity

France over Church / pope… over God?

priests = elected?!

opposite of Voltaire (separation of Church and state)

force clergy to swear an oath to constitution + France

many rejected and were no longer part of clergy…

people think revolution has gone too far, interfering with God

Anniversary of Revolution

July 14 → Bastille Day party

king forced to support, his power is getting undermined gradually

Edmund Burke

believes French Revolution was too radical

in favor of tradition + status quo (conservative political thought)

back to absolutism

too many ppl with political pwr, too many perspectives = instability (anti-voting, pro-king)

general will and Enlight ideas = in support of one leader

without a queen, women are lesser animals and France is brought down

Mary Wollstonecraft

responds to Burke sarcastically

believes women have rational thought and deserve a role in society

men have less rational thought sometimes

women are never given a chance to be as educated as men..

women should have equality too (reference to DRMC)

What makes Louis XVI feel threatened so he had to flee?

On Easter, people blocked the road from keeping king from meeting his private clergyman (bc he did not swear the oath)… people have more power than king, Louis decided he had to go

Louis XVI’s flight

he packs, dresses like middle class and flee with family in hope of reaching Austria to team up with them and Prussia… to take back France

they stop for a break in Varennes, king is recognized bc his face is on coins

he left a letter behind that they used as proof of his betrayal of the revolution

Louis XVI’s Letter of Varennes

no longer supports the National Assembly, because they have only caused chaos

thinks things need to change and he is for France

paternal + best friend…

but he was caught fleeing, so they use the letter as proof

Louis XVI tries to apologize but he forgives them instead of asking for it… they do not appreciate this

Sans-culottes

working-class peasants that wear long pants

become a radical group with political influence that call for an end to monarchy

Jacobins

most radical political party in the National Assembly

heavily influenced by sans-culottes

What does Nat’l Assembly do next?

They officially create a constitutional monarchy, then they declare war on Austria

Louis XVI wants Austria to win…

people are unhappy because war = taxes

Since people are angry, guess what happens?

Sans-culottes try to invade Nat’l Assem, doesn’t work but they start to use violence on government

armed sans-culottes invade king’s palace, kill guards, king and family escape…

Austrian troops invade in the middle of this chaos

Jacobins become leading party of Nat’l Assembly

King’s Trial

Louis XVI put on trial for treason

Jacobins want execution, Girondins (less radical political group) want exile..

majority votes guilty for treason, then everyone votes for execution (or doesn’t vote)… king executed by newfangled guilotine

Olympe de Gouges

Declaration of Woman & Citizeness (DRMC satire)

if a woman can be executed, she should have freedom of opinion (they can get in trouble for it, so why not?)

thus, if they have a say in budget of family, they should be able to vote

male white prop owners that are 25+ are such a small portion of population, not a constitution that represents the people

calls for women to ACT! WAKE UP! Create own revolution!

Nat’l Assem on pol parties for women

formed a republic

should women have political parties/meetings? can they organize? (answer: no)

can they govern (also no)

women are clearly inferior based on nature

physical strength

not their purpose (kids, education)

too emotional (not fit for gov’t)

so now it is illegal for women to be in gov’t

What was Louis XVI’s name on trial?

Louis Capet of Bourbon

What was the response to Louis’ execution?

international fear

wars with Austria, Prussia, GB, Spain + Dutch

How does the Nat’l Assembly react?

DRAFTS!

incredibly unpopular decision

The Vendée

group of people against new republic gov’t

religious, against restrictions on clergy

start a civil war at the same time as the 5 other international wars

La Marseillaise

supported by republic, advocating against absolutism

new national anthem, violent

what is the new motto?

Liberty, Equality, Fraternity

Totalitarianism

a form of gov’t w/ no individual freedoms, complete subservience to state

Committee of Public Safety (CoPS)

CoPS are totalitarian

__ is the political group in the Jacobins. They are __ radical. Their leader is __.

The Mountain, more, Robespierre

Maximilien Robespierre’s Law of Suspects

goal: to find enemies of the French Revolution (need total loyalty in the middle of invasions and civil war)

contradicts DRMC, limits freedom of speech