ENVS 469 - Final Exam

How does restoration fit into conservation?

to halt and reverse biodiversity loss

Define landscape restoration

the ongoing process of regaining ecological functionality and enhancing human well-being across degraded landscapes.

It is restoring a whole landscape to meet future and present needs and to offer multiple benefits and land uses over time It focuses on restoring ecosystems to improve biodiversity, promote resilience, and sustain ecosystem services.

What is a fundamental assumption underlying the concept of ecological restoration?

humans are responsible for degrading the natural environment, and therefore humans have a responsibility to repair it

How has the western science perspective created?

the separation of people from nature, which is not apparent in other world views

What is eco-cultural restoration?

Restoration that acknowledges the cultural impacts of colonialism, which is responsible for ecological degradation + occured through processes that also attempted to alienate Indigenous peoples from their lands

often about undoing the harmful effects of colonialism

Ecological restoration is (4 things):

value-laden

context-driven

contested

experiential

Instead of seeking greater control we must use …. what?

pertinent strategies, including the democratic process, inclusiveness, and respecting local values and knowledge

When doing ecological restoration, it is important to recognize competing land-use views, including:

differing visions of human-nature relationships, and opposing values related to job creation and financing

What are two recent examples of ecological restoration that acknowledged competing land views, human-nature relationships, and job creation and financing ?

Indigenous Protected and Conserved Areas

Reverse auctions

What are Indigenous Protected and Conserved Areas (IPCAs)?

lands and waters where Indigenous governments have the primary role in protecting + conserving ecosystems through Indigenous law, governance and knowledge systems

IPCAs vary in terms of..?

governance + management objectives

What is at the heart and soul of an IPCA?

culture and language

What are reverse auctions?

auctions where the landowner is able to put a price on what it will cost them to convert the land (often agricultural) to native grasslands and be maintained in perennial cover for a minimum of 30 years

What is rewilding?

comprehensive, often large-scale conservation efforts focused on restoring sustainable biodiversity & ecosystem health by protecting core wilderness areas, providing connectivity between them, and protecting or reintroducing apex and keystone species

What are nature-based solutions

solutions that leverage nature and the power of healthy ecosystems to protect people, optimize infrastructure, and safeguard a stable and biodiverse future

What is ecosystem-based adaptation?

the use of biodiversity and ecosystem services to help people adapt to the adverse impacts of climate change, particularly slow-onset changes like shifting rainfall patterns and SLR

How do nature-based solutions and rewilding differ?

Nature-based solutions are more interdisciplinary (ecosystem services, social, economic) vs rewilding which is very ecologically-focused

What do (1) restoration + rewilding, and (2) nature-based solutions & ecosystem-based adaptation have in common within each group? How do these groups differ?

Restoration + re-wilding focus more on biodiversity loss and recovery, whereas nature-based solutions + ecosystem-based adaptation focus on human wellbeing and economic systems

Intrinsic value of ecosystems more apparent in first two, whereas second two are more individualistic/materialistic

Second two are easier to get funding and policy approval for b/c of focus on human benefits

Restoration + rewilding focus more on the past, while nature-based solutions and ecosystem-based adaptation look more to the future

Does choice of concept matter? I.e., how does choosing restoration vs rewilding vs ecosystem-based adaptation vs nature-based solutions matter?

Need to know target audience; framing a method one way (e.g., people-centric) can affect the success of a project, such as funding or community approval

What are some reasons as to why Canada should restore ecosystems?

• carbon sequestration - worth billions

• supports Canadian + Indigenous health and well-being

• reduces severity and frequency of natural disasters (e.g., wildfires) which cost billions to fight and/or repair

  • decreases human-health costs associated w/ climate change impacts, such as severe heat

• responsibility / duty to wildlife, humankind, reconciliation

  • CBDR at a global scale

• Increases resilience to climate change (ecological + financial benefits)

• can facilitate long-term economic expansion

Reasons why Canada shouldn’t restore ecosystems?

• very costly - money could go to other things

• results aren’t promised; restoration is often experiential

• climate change adds uncertainty to project success (e.g., wildfire could wipe out recently restored ecosystem)

• may jeapordize livelihoods of those in rural communities

• land can’t be used for other purposes (e.g., housing, mining) that support economic expansion

• political pressure / pushback — doesn’t align w/ community or political values

• Restoration is contested - why not just protect?

• lack of trust w/ western approaches and institutions by locals

• International initiatives may affect success of project (e.g., migratory bird impacts from elsewhere, transboundary rivers)

Restoration in a multi-level context includes:

• UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration

  • Bonn Challenge + Canada’s committments

• Global Biodiversity Framework

  • Canada’s 2030 Nature Strategy

• Provincial & territorial policy

• municipal policy & planning

• Indigenous governance (local → international scale)

What does the UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration include?

the Bonn Challenge

What does the Global Biodiversity Framework include?

Canada’s 2030 Nature Strategy

When does the UN-declared Decade of Ecosystem Restoration go from?

2021-2030

What does the UN Decade of Ecosystem Restoration aim to do ?

aims to prevent, halt and reverse the degradation of ecosystems on every continent + in the ocean

can help end poverty, combat climate change + prevent mass extinction

2030, on top of being the last year of the UN Decade on ER, is also the deadline for what?

the deadline for SDGs + the timeline scientists have identified as the last change to prevent catastrophic climate change

Who leads the UN Decade of ER?

Led by UNEP - a global movement to fast track restoration + build a sustainable future

The Bonn Challenge is under what?

the UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration

How many countries are involved in the Bonn Challenge?

61

What is Canada’s pledge under the Bonn Challenge?

to restore 19 million hectares (1.9% of its land mass) of land W

Given Canada’s 19 million ha pledge under the Bonn Challenge, what progress have we made?

As of 2025, the IUCN says we have currently restored 0 hectares, sequestered 0 tonnes of CO2, and created 0 jobs T

What is the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework?

2022 UN agreement adopted by 196 countries to halt and reverse biodiversity loss by 2030.

What are some ecological focuses under the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework?

• species recovery

• ecosystem restoration

• pollution and biodiversity

• urban blue and green spaces

• sustainable use and management of wild species

  • ecosystem services + functions

What are some social focuses under the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework?

• gender equality

• inclusion of Indigenous peoples, women/girls, and youth/children

• knowledge sharing

• mainstreaming of biodiversity values

What are some economic focuses under the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework?

• resource mobilization (financial resources)

• biosafety / biotechnology

• business’ role

• capacity building

  • knowledge sharing

What is Target 2 of the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework

Ensure that by 2030, at least 30 percent of areas degraded (terrestrial, marine, coastal, etc.) are under effective restoration, to enhance biodiversity + ecosystem functions and services, ecological integrity and connectivity

What is Canada’s 2030 Nature strategy

2030 vision: working together to halt and reverse biodiversity loss + put nature on a path to recovery by taking urgent action to bring about transformative change for all living things, including people

What are the the 6 pillars of Canada’s 2030 Nature strategy?

1. Indigenous rights and reconciliation

2. Whole-of-government, whole-of-society approach

3. Resilient economy

4. On-the-ground action

5. Science and knowledge

6. Integrated, holistic approaches

What are the three areas of activity in Canada’s 2030 Nature Strategy?

1. Reducing threats to biodiversity

2. Meeting people’s needs

   1. Deploying tools and solutions

What is Target 2 of Canada’s 2030 Nature Strategy?

Ecosystem Restoration

What are some challenges to target 2 of Canada’s 2030 Nature Strategy?

• Canada does not have definitions for “degraded areas” or “effective restoration”

• Information is fragmented and not shared

  • Limited collaboration between relevant organizations

What are some examples of restoration programs in Canada?

• Parks Canada

  • National Program for Ecological Corridors

  • North American Waterfowl Management Plan (NAWMP)

  • DFO’s Fish Habitat Restoration Priorities

What are the five priorities for Parks Canada’s restoration programs?

1. Indigenous leadership in conservation

2. Climate Change

3. Landscape-scale conservation

4. Establishment of protected areas

5. Restoration and recovery

What does Parks Canada’s restoration and recovery include?

• multi-species action plans

• a focus on restoration to support the recovery of multiple species at risk

  • specific actions that vary by protected area, but focus on collaboration within and outside of parks

What is the National Program for Ecological Corridors?

a program that identifies high priority areas for ecological corridors across canada

What is the North American Waterfowl Management Plan?

A continental-scale wetland protection and restoration plan

arguably one of the most successful conservation programs (waterfowl population has increased since 1970s)

What does the DFO’s Fish Habitat Restoration Priorities include?

1. Indigenous perspectives, rights and reconciliation

2. partnerships and planning

   1. socioeconomic considerations

What are the 4 D’s in Restoration Project Plans?

define

design

develop

deliver

What are the 4 stages of a Restoration project?

1. Planning

2. Design

3. Implementation

   1. Aftercare

What happens in the planning stage of a restoration project?

• scope statement

• goals and objectives

• site analysis

• risk assessment

• suitability / feasibility

• project budget and schedule

• design approach

  • concept design

What happens in the design stage of a restoration project?

• project plans including:

  • project features

  • plant list

  • drawings

  • specifications

  • bill of materials

  • obtain approvals / permits

  • bid package

  • agreements

    • management program

What happens in the implementation stage of a restoration project?

• install project:

  • prepare site

  • arrange labourers

  • train labourers

  • procure materials

  • obtain rights of entry

  • management techniques

  • develop water supply

    • establish plants

What occurs during the Aftercare phase of a restoration project?

• management program

• execute

• weeding

• replace plants

• remediation

• monitoring reports

• approved permits

• as-built plans

The planning phase establishes what?

the foundations of the project: mission, goals, objectives

Coordination and collaboration within and between various groups, including stakeholders and rightholders begin when?

during the planning phase

permits and regulations are obtained during what phase of the project?

planning

visioning, scenarios and contingencies are considered first when?

during the planning phase of the project

schedules, budgeting and risk management are done during what phase?

planning

Restoration relies on what?

the self-sustaining (autogenic) capabilities of ecosystems

What two types of strategies are there in restoration ecology?

1. Management

2. Construction/Installation

Most projects use a combination of…?

management and construction/installation strategies

What is the management strategy approach?

• actions intended to reinitiate processes that would have occurred without the stressors on-sitelong-term

• no immediate visible changes

• usually long-term

• e.g., fire-reintegration, livestock grazing, removing invasives

actions intended to reinitiate processes that would have occurred without the stressors on-site are what type of restoration strategy?

management

restoring hydrology is an example of what type of restoration strategy?

management

Construction/Installation restoration strategies involve what? example?

involves the active fashioning of items put together by arranging or connecting an array of parts

usually more intensive than management

• e.g., landscape changes (slope, elevation, drainage, contouring)

• E.g., pipelines, roadways, dams, diversions

• e.g., plantings - translocation, seedlings, containers

  • e.g., habitat elements - rocks, trees, enclosures

Which type of restoration strategy is usually more intensive?

construction/installation

Define “function”

the combination of all natural (biological, physical, chemical) processes and events that occur within a given ecosystem

What are some physical processes that fall under the “function” of an ecosystem

day length, solar access, temperature, erosion,

What are some biological + chemical processes that contribute to the function of an ecosystem

nutrient cycling, photosynthesis, decomposition

growth, mortality, decomposition, competition, predation, herbivory, parasitism, symbiosis, etc.

What do the functions of ecosystems determine? why do we need to account for them?

Functions determine the self-sustaining (autogenic) capabilities of ecosystems

Some times, we account / use them with our restoration strategies

in other cases, function(s) are what we are trying to restore

What falls under the Project Definition?

problem + mission statements, goals, objectives, tasks

What does the problem statement do?

• identifies missing or underperforming functions

  • identifies the existing condition, desired condition, and actions required

What is the mission statement? What does it do?

a concise statement clarifying the purpose of the project

responds to the problem (statement)

What are goals?

the broad purpose & desired results/impacts of a project

What are objectives?

the means that help you achieve a goal

What are tasks?

the actions you take to achieve your objectives

What is Leitbild?

the ideal/guiding principle that asks:

what would you do if you had all the time and money required, and no outside restrictions?

What is required for effective goals?

• focus on long-term outcomes (not short-term issues)

• embodies consistent perspectives from various people

• enables uniformity of requirements

• benchmarks the validity of objectives and tasks

• SMART

What does SMART stand for?

Smart

Measurable

Attainable

Results-oriented

Time-specified

Project management is required to do what?

meet your goals on time + within budget

Project management starts with …?

the end in mind + identifies pathways to that end

Project management identifies…?

the appropriate solutions to restoration problems

Project management includes what three key tasks to make the leitbild vision realistic + achievable?

1. Scheduling

2. Budgeting

   1. Managing Risk

What does scheduling do? What chart might be used?

Gantt Chart

• lists tasks/actions

• estimates time for each task

  • identifies the resources (who or what is) needed

Budgeting includes what? What kind of approach is used?

• bottom-up approach

• estimate to best of knowledge

• dynamic and iterative

• must think about contingencies (alternative budgets for diff scenarios)

Managing risk includes…?

• proactively identifying risks and ways to manage them

What are the three types of risks that must be considered + managed?

managerial

environmental

political

Examples of managerial risk?

changes in staff

changes in costs

availability of materials

Examples of environmental risks?

flood

fire

storms

Examples of political risk?

changes in regulations

changes in people in power

misinformation

polarization

Risks are typically…?

interconnected and may overlap

In simple terms, what is design?

Deciding what goes where

Project design reflects…what?

budget

schedule

labour

plant material

equipment

adaptability

creativity

innovation

What are four approaches to design

1. Extant reference site

2. Historical reconstruction

3. Remnant

4. Fabrication or creation

What is the extant reference site design approach?

• the use of an existing ecosystem onsite or nearby with similar physical characteristics

  • the whole ecosystem that we are trying to restore is observed

What is the historical reconstruction design approach?

• relies on literature, photographs, historical documents and oral history to develop an understanding of lost ecosystems on a site

• the ecosystem currently doesn’t exist onsite or nearby - so we need to background research to develop as clear of a picture as possible about what the ecosystem should look like

What is the remnant design approach?

• the result of collecting data from several small, isolated examples and compiling the data to compose an overall description of the ecosystems to create a restoration model

• pieces of the ecosystem are observed in various locations and are used to develop a composite understanding of what the whole ecosystem should look like

What is the fabrication / creation site design approach?

• is done where the ecosystem did not occur previously but adjacent or nearby ecosystems provide the species composition and physical attributes

• not true restoration

What does “maintenance” refer to during implementation + aftercare of a restoration project?

• any short-term activities performed to ensure the development of the project site as intended prior to project completion