AP World Full

World’s Major Religions

Zoroastrianism, Shinto, Hinduism, Buddhism, Daoism, Confucianism, Judaism, Christianity, Islam

Religious Mysticism

adherents within religions focusing on mystical experiences that bring them closer to divine - prayer, meditation

Buddhism

Founded by Siddhartha Gautama (563-483 BCE) in Nepal. Teaches that life is suffering caused by desire, which can be overcome by following the Four Noble Truths. It has two main branches: Mahayana (ritualistic and widespread) and Theravada (focused on meditation and simplicity). Buddhism rejects the caste system, appealing to the lower ranks. Cultures: India, China, Southeast Asia, Japan

Christianity

Originated from Jewish groups, and spread across Europe, Africa, and the Middle East, centering on Jesus as the awaited Messiah. Its teachings emphasize devotion to God and love for others, based on the Bible. It presents a world created by God, now fallen. Its messages of compassion and grace through faith resonated with lower classes and women.

Confucianism

Founded by Confucius in China, 400 BCE. Focused on restoring order, recorded in the Analects, influential in Chinese culture.

Hinduism

Believes in a supreme force, Brahma, and many deities, with the ultimate goal of merging with Brahma through a cycle of reincarnation. Its teachings are intertwined with a social caste system, only popular in SE Asia.

Islam

North Africa, Central Asia, and Europe. Allah's words were revealed to Prophet Muhammad, recorded in the Qur'an, teaching that salvation comes from submission to God. This ideology quickly spread across the Middle East.

What caused the decline of Islamic Caliphates?

Enslaved Turkish warriors rebelled against the new Shia dynasty in Iran, while the Seljuk Turk Sunni group faced challenges from Persians, Europeans, Byzantines, and notably, the Mongols, who destroyed Baghdad in 1258.

Middle Ages in Europe

The Fall of Rome led to the rise of the Byzantine Empire in the East, while Western Europe collapsed but retained a strong Christian influence.

European Feudalism

Hierarchy social system of Middle Ages based on land ownership and obligations between lords and vassals, where peasants worked the land in exchange for protection.

English Feudalism

Kingdom centralized under the king; nobles held sections in return for loyalty and military service. Vassals, lower lords, managed noble land, dividing it into fiefs or manors (self-sufficient). Society was male-dominated; women couldn't own land. Peasants and serfs worked the land with limited rights. Skilled trades began to weaken the feudal system as global trade expanded.

Emergence of Modern Countries

At end of Middle Ages, people began moving from feudal kingdom organization to linguistic and cultural organization. This shift laid the groundwork for the development of modern nation-states, influenced by rising nationalism and centralized governance.

Germany’s Path to Statehood (13th Century)

The ruling imperial family died out, leading to a power vacuum (interregnum) as merchants and tradespeople gained influence.

England’s Path to Statehood (13th Century)

English nobles forced King John to sign the Magna Carta, restoring their power and laying the groundwork for Parliament, which later split into the House of Lords and House of Commons.This document established limits on royal authority and affirmed certain legal rights, setting a precedent for constitutional governance in England.

France’s Path to Statehood (13th Century)

England's occupation of France led to revolts, with Joan of Arc battling the English in Orléans during the Hundred Years' War.

Hundred Year’s War (1337-1453)

Unified France, leading to England’s withdrawal from the country.

Spain’s Path to Statehood (13th Century)

Queen Isabella of Castile and Ferdinand of Aragon married to unite Spain in a single monarchy and forced all residents to convert to Christianity - Spanish Inquisition

Russia’s Path to Statehood (13th Century)

Taken over by Tartars (group of eastern Mongols) under Genghis Kahn in 1242 until prince Ivan III expanded his power in the 1400

China’s Song Dynasty (960-1279)

Confucianism supported female subordination; Neo-Confucianism integrated Buddhist concepts of soul, filial piety, role maintenance, and loyalty to superiors.

Foot Binding

Song Dynasty practice of bounding women’s feet after birth to keep them small

China’s Ming Dynasty (1368-1644)

Took over China again after brief period of Mongol dominanceand restored native Chinese rule, known for trade expansion and cultural flourishing.

China’s Zen Practice

meditation and appreciation of beauty

Japan’s Feudal Structure

Emperor Shogun (chief general), Daimyo (landowners, powerful samurai), adhered to Bushido (code of conduct: loyalty, courage, honor), followed by lesser samurai (vassals), peasants, and artisans.

Early conflict in India

Conflict between Islam and Hinduism characterized history in the north. The Delhi Sultanate, an Islamic invader kingdom, clashed with Hindu principalities, notably the Rajput Kingdoms, which united to resist Muslim forces from 1191 until their eventual takeover in 1527.

Khmer Empire (9th-15th century)

Hindu Empire in modern day Cambodia, Laos, Thailand.. Beliefs were carried through Indian Ocean trade network. Crafted the Angor Wat temple

Islam in Africa

Spread to North Africa in the 7th-8th centuries via the Sahara, leading to an explosion of trade in the wealthy sub-Saharan Hausa Kingdoms.

Africa’s Hausa Kingdoms

A collection of independent city-states in northern Nigeria that thrived from the 11th to 19th centuries, significantly impacting trade and cultural exchange in West Africa, especially between 1200 and 1450.

3 Great Ancient Civilizations of the Americas

Maya, Incas, Aztecs

Aztecs

Mesoamerican empire flourishing from the 14th to 16th centuries until Hernán Cortés's conquest in 1519. It featured a hierarchical society with an emperor, nobles, priests, commoners, and slaves. Agriculture thrived with chinampas, and religion, involving human sacrifice, was central to life. The empire also had vast trade networks for cacao, textiles, and precious stones.

Incas

Civilization in the Andes from the 15th to 16th centuries, was noted for its agriculture, architecture, and governance. Founded by Pachacuti, it expanded under leaders like Tupac Inca Yupanqui, boasting an extensive road system (Qhapaq Ñan) and a capital, Cusco, rich in cultural significance. Advanced agricultural techniques supported diverse crops, but the empire declined following the Spanish conquest by Francisco Pizarro in 1532, leading to cultural upheaval and loss of life.

Local trade in the Middle Ages

Merchants emerged with new industry, referred to as Burghers, became politically powerful Towns often formed alliances with each other

Hanseatic League (1358)

Trade alliance through northern Europe to drive toward nationhood, increased social mobility and flexibility. Created a middle class.

Middle Ages Architecture

Romanesque to Gothic architecture - especially reflected in cathedrals. Flying buttresses: tall windows and vaulted ceilings. Often had art and sculpture, music

Scholasticism

Growth of education and knowledge - founding of universities for men philosophy, law, medicine. Study ideas of Muslims and Greeks - came in conflict with religion

Crusades (11-14th century)

Military campaigns by European Christians to convert Muslims and non-Christians, combat religious questioning, Heresies

Heresies

religious practices/beliefs not conforming to traditional church doctrine

Pope Innocent III

issued strict decrees on church doctrine - frequently persecuted heretics and Jews, unsuccessful 4th crusade

Pope Gregory IX

Person, 1220s-40s. Forced formal interrogation and prosecution of perceived heretics with punishments like excommunication, torture, execution. Church often referred to as Universal Church or Church Militant

Thomas Aquinas

Christian theologian who made advancements in Christian thought - faith and reason aren’t in conflict. 1225-1274

What led to urbanization in the Middle Ages?

Trade and agricultural production- cities usually were around trade routes Silk Road cities were the most populous

Mongols

set of tribes and clans that were superb horseman and archers

Genghis Kahn

unified the tribes in Mongolia in the early 1200s to expand their authority over other societies - first invaded China in 1234

Mongol Empire

panned from Pacific Ocean to Eastern Europe - spit into hordes after death of Genghis Kahn, ruthless warriors destroying cities but remained peaceful after settling into cities

Golden Mongol Horde

conquered modern-day Russia

Kublai Kahn

Genghis Kahn’s successor - ruled China

Mongol Culture

Very nomadic, roots in Buddhism, shamanism, and animism. Extremely varied across regions.

Timur Lang

Mongol leader who took over India and destroyed everything - grew Islam in the nation. 1336-1405

Impact of Mongols

Great diffusers of culture. Prevented Russia from culturally developing. World trade, cultural diffusion, global awareness grew as they spread through Europe, the Middle East, and Asia

Song Dynasty in China (960-1279)

Merit-based bureaucracy fostered loyal officials, improved transport and communication, stabilized China, and upheld Confucian values.

Song Dynasty Industrialism

Increased literacy via printed books boosted productivity; had major cities and a strong navy; employed gunpowder, compasses, and advanced ships; rivaled British iron production (800-1100).

Main Global Trade Routes (1200-1600)

Hanseatic League, Silk Road, Mongol land routes, China-Japan trade, India-Persia trade, Trans-Saharan trade.

Bubonic Plague

started in Asia in the 14th century and carried by merchants - killed about 1/3 people in England

Indian Ocean Trade

Dominated by Persians and Arabs - western India to Persian Gulf to eastern Africa

Silk Road

Cultural exchange (1200-1600): Travelers at trade towns (Kashgar, Samarkand) shared silk, porcelain, paper, religion, food, and military tech from China to Mediterranean cultures during the early Roman Empire.

Expansion of Religion and Empire

Both natural spread of religion through contact over trade and intentional diffusion through missionary work or religious war - often caused conflicts between opposing cultures

Reasons for immigration, 1200-1600

Ran out of room in certain places, but cities were always increasing in size as opportunities grew in them. New cities and empires drew people in. Muslim pilgrimages

Xuanzang

Chinese Buddhist monk who travelled through T’ang Dynasty to India to explore Buddhism

Marco Polo

merchant from Venice who travelled to China and Europe

Ibn Battuta

Islamic traveler who travelled through Islamic world to India to China

Margery Kemp

English Christian who travelled through Europe and Holy

Sir Isaac Newton

English physicist and mathematician Developed the laws of motion and universal gravitationMade significant contributions to calculus and optics.

Europe in 1300s

Europe had been Christian for over a thousand years - As countries began to unify, countries who had preserved their history influenced Europe to expand its worldview

The Renaissance in Europe

As trade increased, people moved to the cities and an influx of money was experienced - a lot of money went to studying the past leading to the Renaissance

Humanism

focus on personal accomplishment, happiness, and life on earth instead of living for the goal of salvation

Printing Press

Invented by Johannes Gutenberg in mid 1400s. Made books easy to produce and affordable, and accessible to everyone. Led to more literate people

Protestant Reformation

Martin Luther published his Ninety-Five Theses in 1517, aimed to reform the catholic church. Key figures like John Calvin and Huldrych Zwingli reshaped Christian doctrine. The movement influenced politics, inciting conflicts such as the Thirty Years' War, and utilized printing technology to spread ideas, decreasing Catholic authority and fostering religious pluralism and secularism across Europe.

Indulgences

Allowed members of the catholic church to buy their way out of sins. Method of exploitation.

Martin Luther

German monk who published his list of complaints against the church most significantly proposed salvation was given directly through God, not through the church, which significantly reduced the church’s influencecaused a split in Christianity

Lutherans

Martin Luther’s followers - separated from Catholic Church

Calvinism (John Calvin)

predestination - only a few people would be saved by God, great influence in Scotland and France

Catholic Reformation (16th Century)

Catholic church attempts to remedy some of their controversies and regains some of its credibility still wanted authority and controlled to Council of Trent - right back to the beginning

Council of Trent

Reinstated pope authority, punished heretics, reestablished Latin as only language in worship

Scientific Revolution (17-1800s)

Expanded education and knowledge led to world discoveries and different views on the organization of the world

Nicolaus Copernicus

Discovered earth and other celestial bodies revolved around the sun and the earth rotated on its axis

Galileo

built off Copernicus’s theories and proved them. Forced to recant by the Catholic Church and put under house arrest

Scientific Method

shift from religion being most reliable means of scientific meaning to theory, documentation, repetition, and experimentation.

Tycho Brahe

Danish astronomer who made astronomical observations and compiled a comprehensive star catalog - also known for his contributions to the understanding of planetary motion and the development of the Tychonic system, a hybrid model of the solar system.

Francis Bacon

Developed the scientific method, emphasized empirical observation and experimentation, and authored influential works like Novum Organum and The New Atlantis, championing knowledge for societal benefit.

Johannes Kepler

German astronomer and mathematician who discovered the three laws of planetary motion, helping to revolutionize our understanding of the universe - also made significant contributions to the development of calculus and optics

What did Scientific Revolution lead to?

Industrial Revolution, Many rejecting the church - atheists (believe no god exists), deists (believe God exists, but is passive)

Spain

Became very powerful, supporting exploration, expansion of Spanish language and culture, and having a large naval fleet controlled parts of France, the Netherlands, Austria, Germany, Spain, America. Spanish Inquisition: mission to oust heretics. Dutch Protestants under Spain revolted to form independent the Netherlands

Portugal

Focused on dominating costal Africa, Indian Ocean, Spice Islands - lost control to Dutch and British

Elizabethan Age (1558-1603)

England experienced expansion, exploration, colonization in New World - golden age

Muscovy Company

first joint-stock company - became British East India Company

James I

succeeded Elizabeth in 1607 England and Scotland under one rulershipreforms to accommodate Catholics and Puritans failed

Charles I

succeeded James in 1625. Forced to sign the Petition of Rights, limiting taxes and unlawful imprisonment, but ignored it for 11 years. In 1640, Scotland invaded England in resentment, leading to the Long Parliament, which sat for 20 years and curtailed monarchical power. Parliament eventually executed this person, starting the English Commonwealth.

Oliver Cromwell

Succeeded Charles I and became the first Lord Protector intolerant of religion, violent against Catholics and Irish - highly resented

Charles II

Exiled son of Charles I, invited by Parliament to reclaim the throne as a limited monarchy after Cromwell died. Agreed to Habeas Corpus Act

Habeas Corpus Act

Protects people from arrests without due process

James II

Succeeded Charles II after his death. Highly disliked, fear he would make England a Catholic country. Driven from power by Parliament (Glorious Revolution)

English Bill of Rights (1689)

Signed by James II’s daughter Mary, who succeeded him

Hundred Year’s War in France (1337-1453)

Series of conflicts fought between England and France from 1337 to 1453, primarily over claims to the French throne. This lengthy struggle marked significant developments in military technology, national identity, and the political landscape of Europe during a time of transition. Unified and centralized France under a strong monarchy

Religion in France

Largely Catholic, but Protestants started to emerge (Huguenots) and fought with the Catholics

Henry IV of France

Issued Edict of Nantes (1598) (environment of tolerance between religions). First of Bourbon kings, ruled until 1792.

Cardinal Richelieu of France

Chief advisor to the Bourbons who compromised with Protestants instead of fighting with them. Created the bureaucratic class noblesse de la robe, succeeded by Cardinal Mazarin

Louis XIV of France

Reigned from 1642-1715, highly self-important, condemned many Huguenots, never summoned lawmakers, and appointed Jean Baptiste Colbert to manage royal finances during constant wars to expand the empire.

War of Spanish Succession (1701-1714)

Louis XIV’s grandson was to inherit the Spanish throne, so England, Roman Empire, and German princes united to prevent France and Spain from combining

Holy Roman Empire

was in present day Austria/Germany - weak due to the mixed dynamics, rulership, and religion of the surrounding area. Lost parts of Hungary to Ottoman Turks in early 16th century. Devastated by Thirty Years’ War (1618-1648)

Peace of Augsburg (1555)

intended to bring end to conflicts between Catholics and Protestants in German states

Thirty Years’ War

began when protestants in Bohemia challenged Catholics - violent and destructive Peace of Westphalia (1648): German states affirmed to keep the peace