Gilded Age, Progressive Era, and New Deal: Key Concepts and Legislation

Robber Barons

A pejorative term for powerful 19th-century industrialists and financiers who amassed great wealth through monopolies and exploitative practices.

Andrew Carnegie

Scottish-born steel magnate who built Carnegie Steel and pioneered vertical integration.

Social Darwinism

The application of Charles Darwin's theory of natural selection to human society, arguing that competition produced social progress.

John D. Rockefeller

Founder of Standard Oil Company and master of horizontal integration, controlling nearly the entire oil industry.

Standard Oil

Rockefeller's oil trust that dominated U.S. refining and distribution by the 1880s.

Trust

A business structure combining multiple companies under a single board of trustees to control markets.

Scientific Management

System developed by Frederick W. Taylor to improve efficiency by studying and standardizing industrial labor.

American Federation of Labor (AFL)

A national labor union founded in 1886 under Samuel Gompers, organizing skilled workers for better wages and conditions.

Knights of Labor

Broad labor organization founded in 1869 that sought to unite all workers and promote cooperative reform.

Haymarket (Affair/Riot)

1886 labor rally in Chicago that turned violent when a bomb exploded, killing police and protesters.

New Immigrants

A wave of immigrants arriving to the U.S. between 1880 and 1920, primarily from Southern and Eastern Europe.

Nativism

Hostility toward immigrants based on fears they would undermine American culture, politics, or jobs.

Tenements

Overcrowded, poorly ventilated apartment buildings housing working-class families and immigrants in industrial cities.

Political Machines

Powerful urban organizations (like New York's Tammany Hall) that controlled local politics through patronage and corruption.

Boss Tweed (William M. Tweed)

Leader of Tammany Hall, New York's Democratic political machine, during the 1860s-1870s.

Gilded Age

Term coined by Mark Twain describing the late 19th century's glittering prosperity that masked political corruption and social inequality.

Social Gospel Movement

Religious movement of the late 19th century that applied Christian ethics to social problems such as poverty and inequality.

Settlement Houses

Community centers established by reformers like Jane Addams (Hull House) to provide education and social services to immigrants.

Jane Addams

Founder of Hull House in Chicago and leading Progressive reformer advocating for immigrants, women, and the poor.

Jacob Riis

Photojournalist and author of How the Other Half Lives (1890), documenting tenement life in New York City.

Pendleton Civil Service Act (1883)

Federal law requiring government jobs to be awarded based on merit through exams rather than political connections.

Populist Party (People's Party)

A political movement formed in the 1890s by farmers and laborers seeking government control of railroads, banking reform, and the free coinage of silver.

Omaha Platform (1892)

The Populist Party's platform advocating for direct election of senators, graduated income tax, government ownership of railroads, and free silver.

William Jennings Bryan

Democratic and Populist leader known for his "Cross of Gold" speech supporting free silver in the 1896 presidential election.

"Cross of Gold" Speech

Bryan's famous 1896 speech defending bimetallism (free silver) and condemning the gold standard.

Free Silver Movement

The push for unlimited coinage of silver to increase the money supply and aid indebted farmers.

Bimetallism

Monetary system based on using both gold and silver as currency standards.

Panic of 1893

A major economic depression caused by railroad overbuilding, bank failures, and limited gold reserves.

Sherman Antitrust Act (1890)

First federal law prohibiting monopolies and business practices that restrained trade.

Interstate Commerce Act (1887)

Law creating the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC) to regulate railroad rates and practices.

Gilded Age Politics

The late 19th century's political era characterized by corruption, patronage, and close party competition.

Progressivism

A broad reform movement (1890s-1920s) aimed at addressing the economic, political, and social problems created by industrialization, urbanization, and corruption.

Muckrakers

Investigative journalists who exposed corruption, corporate abuses, and social injustices.

Upton Sinclair / The Jungle

Sinclair's 1906 novel exposing unsanitary conditions in the Chicago meatpacking industry.

Ida Tarbell

Investigative journalist whose exposé of Standard Oil revealed the monopolistic practices of John D. Rockefeller. Helped build public support for antitrust actions against major corporations.

Initiative, Referendum, Recall

Progressive political reforms allowing citizens to propose laws (initiative), vote directly on laws (referendum), and remove elected officials (recall). Expanded direct democracy and reduced political corruption at the state level.

17th Amendment (1913)

Established the direct election of U.S. senators by voters instead of state legislatures. Increased democratic participation and reduced corporate and political influence.

19th Amendment (1920)

Granted women the right to vote nationwide. Culmination of decades of activism by women's suffrage leaders; major milestone in expanding democracy.

Temperance Movement / 18th Amendment

The campaign to ban alcohol, leading to the 18th Amendment (Prohibition) in 1919. Reflected moral reform efforts and the influence of religious activism in Progressive politics.

Jane Addams / Settlement Houses

Founder of Hull House and a leading reformer who promoted public health, education, and women's rights. Advanced the Social Gospel and modeled how civic engagement could address urban poverty.

Booker T. Washington

African American educator and founder of Tuskegee Institute who advocated vocational training and gradual economic progress. His approach emphasized self-help over immediate civil rights, influencing Black strategies during the Progressive Era.

W.E.B. Du Bois

Scholar and co-founder of the NAACP who demanded immediate civil and political equality for African Americans. Represented the more militant challenge to racial discrimination, opposing Washington's gradualism.

NAACP (National Association for the Advancement of Colored People)

Civil rights organization founded in 1909 to fight racial injustice through legal action and advocacy. Became the leading voice for African American rights throughout the 20th century.

Square Deal

Theodore Roosevelt's domestic policy promoting fairness for workers, businesses, and consumers through government regulation. Expanded the federal government's role in protecting public welfare and limiting corporate power.

Pure Food and Drug Act (1906)

Law prohibiting the sale of mislabeled or contaminated food and medicine. Marked the beginning of federal consumer protection and food safety oversight.

Meat Inspection Act (1906)

Required sanitary conditions and federal inspection of meat processing facilities. Directly responded to The Jungle and strengthened public trust in government oversight.

Conservation Movement

The effort to protect natural resources through preservation and scientific management, championed by Roosevelt and Gifford Pinchot. Established the National Park System and made environmental stewardship a federal responsibility.

Imperialism

The policy of extending a nation's authority by acquiring territories or establishing economic and political dominance over other nations. Reflected America's shift from isolationism to global power at the turn of the 20th century.

Alfred Thayer Mahan / The Influence of Sea Power upon History

U.S. naval officer and historian who argued that national greatness depended on a strong navy and overseas bases. His ideas influenced U.S. expansionism and naval buildup leading to empire-building in the Pacific and Caribbean.

Yellow Journalism

Sensationalized and exaggerated reporting used to attract readers and influence public opinion, notably by William Randolph Hearst and Joseph Pulitzer. Fueled pro-war sentiment and U.S. involvement in the Spanish-American War.

Spanish-American War (1898)

Conflict between the U.S. and Spain triggered by Cuban independence struggles and the explosion of the USS Maine. Marked the U.S.'s emergence as a global power and resulted in the acquisition of overseas territories.

USS Maine

American battleship that exploded in Havana Harbor in 1898, killing over 250 sailors. The event, blamed on Spain, spurred the U.S. to declare war and symbolized the power of media in foreign policy.

Rough Riders

Volunteer cavalry regiment led by Theodore Roosevelt during the Spanish-American War. Their victory at San Juan Hill made Roosevelt a national hero and boosted American nationalism.

Treaty of Paris (1898)

Peace agreement ending the Spanish-American War, under which the U.S. gained Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines, and Cuba became a U.S. protectorate. Marked America's transition to an overseas empire.

Annexation of the Philippines

The U.S. acquisition of the Philippines following the Spanish-American War, despite Filipino resistance. Sparked debates over imperialism, race, and America's global role.

Anti-Imperialist League

Organization founded in 1898 opposing U.S. annexation of the Philippines and other territories. Argued that imperialism betrayed American democratic ideals of self-determination.

Open Door Policy

U.S. foreign policy proposed by Secretary of State John Hay calling for equal trading rights in China. Protected U.S. economic interests in Asia without direct colonization.

Panama Canal

A canal connecting the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, constructed by the U.S. after supporting Panama's independence from Colombia (completed 1914). Strengthened U.S. naval and commercial power and symbolized Roosevelt's 'big stick' diplomacy.

Roosevelt Corollary

Theodore Roosevelt's 1904 extension of the Monroe Doctrine, asserting the U.S. right to intervene in Latin American nations to maintain stability. Justified U.S. interventionism and expanded its influence in the Western Hemisphere.

Dollar Diplomacy

President William Howard Taft's policy of using U.S. economic power and investment to influence Latin American and Asian nations. Reflected the shift from military to financial imperialism in U.S. foreign relations.

World War I (1914-1918)

A global conflict originating in Europe among major powers, with the U.S. entering in 1917 on the side of the Allies. Marked the U.S.'s emergence as a world power and reshaped politics, society, and global relations.

Neutrality

President Woodrow Wilson's initial policy to keep the U.S. out of World War I while maintaining trade with all sides. Reflected isolationist tendencies but proved difficult as German submarine warfare endangered Americans.

Unrestricted Submarine Warfare

Germany's policy of sinking any ship (including neutral ones) near Britain during WWI. Directly led to U.S. entry into the war after repeated attacks on American vessels.

Zimmermann Telegram (1917)

Secret German message proposing a military alliance with Mexico if the U.S. entered WWI. Its discovery inflamed public opinion and pushed the U.S. toward war.

Selective Service Act (1917)

Law requiring men to register for military service, creating a national draft. Enabled rapid mobilization of the U.S. Army for participation in WWI.

War Industries Board

Government agency that coordinated industrial production and resource allocation during WWI. Demonstrated the federal government's expanded role in managing the wartime economy.

Committee on Public Information (CPI)

Government propaganda agency led by George Creel that promoted the war effort through media and censorship. Mobilized public opinion but also limited dissent and civil liberties.

Espionage and Sedition Acts (1917-1918)

Laws that criminalized criticism of the government, the military, or the war effort. Suppressed free speech and led to the imprisonment of dissenters like Eugene V. Debs.

Great Migration

The movement of hundreds of thousands of African Americans from the rural South to northern industrial cities during WWI. Reshaped urban demographics, expanded economic opportunities, and intensified racial tensions.

Fourteen Points

President Wilson's postwar peace plan outlining principles like self-determination, free trade, and the League of Nations.

League of Nations

International organization proposed by Wilson to prevent future wars through collective security.

Treaty of Versailles (1919)

Peace treaty ending WWI, imposing heavy reparations and territorial losses on Germany.

Red Scare (1919-1920)

Postwar fear of communism, radicalism, and foreign influence following the Russian Revolution.

Return to Normalcy

Warren G. Harding's 1920 presidential campaign promise to restore stability and conservative values after World War I.

Teapot Dome Scandal

A bribery scandal involving the secret leasing of federal oil reserves in Wyoming to private companies during Harding's presidency.

Calvin Coolidge

U.S. president (1923-1929) who championed limited government and laissez-faire economics.

Henry Ford / Assembly Line

Industrial innovator who revolutionized automobile manufacturing with the moving assembly line.

Consumerism

A culture centered on mass consumption of goods, fueled by advertising, credit, and mass production in the 1920s.

Harlem Renaissance

A cultural movement during the 1920s centered in Harlem, New York, celebrating Black art, literature, and music.

Langston Hughes

Leading poet of the Harlem Renaissance whose work celebrated Black life and resilience.

Jazz Age

Term describing the 1920s cultural era defined by jazz music, nightlife, and new forms of expression.

Flappers

Young women of the 1920s who challenged gender norms through fashion, behavior, and independence.

Prohibition (18th Amendment)

The constitutional ban (1920-1933) on the manufacture, sale, and transport of alcohol.

Speakeasies

Illegal bars or clubs that sold alcohol during Prohibition.

Scopes "Monkey" Trial (1925)

Court case in Tennessee challenging a state law banning the teaching of evolution in public schools.

Ku Klux Klan (revival 1915)

Reemerged in the 1920s as a white supremacist organization targeting Black Americans, immigrants, Catholics, and Jews.

Sacco and Vanzetti Case

The controversial 1920 trial and execution of two Italian anarchists accused of murder.

Marcus Garvey / UNIA

Jamaican-born activist who founded the Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA) and promoted Black nationalism and Pan-African unity. Encouraged racial pride and inspired later Black Power movements.

Lost Generation

Group of writers disillusioned by WWI and critical of 1920s materialism, including Ernest Hemingway and F. Scott Fitzgerald. Their works shaped modernist literature and reflected postwar alienation.

Stock Market Speculation

Risky investment practices and widespread use of credit to buy stocks during the 1920s. Created an economic bubble that collapsed in 1929, leading to the Great Depression.

Black Tuesday (October 29, 1929)

The day the U.S. stock market crashed, wiping out billions of dollars in wealth. Marked the beginning of the Great Depression, leading to widespread bank failures and unemployment.

Great Depression

The severe global economic crisis from 1929 to the late 1930s characterized by mass unemployment, bank failures, and deflation. Transformed Americans' relationship with government and prompted massive economic reforms.

Hoovervilles

Shantytowns built by homeless people during the Great Depression, named sarcastically after President Herbert Hoover. Symbolized public discontent with Hoover's failure to relieve economic suffering.

Dust Bowl

A series of severe dust storms (1930s) that devastated farms across the Great Plains due to drought and poor agricultural practices. Drove thousands of families (especially 'Okies') to migrate westward seeking work and stability.

Bonus Army (1932)

Group of World War I veterans who marched on Washington to demand early payment of promised bonuses. Their violent dispersal by the U.S. Army under Hoover further eroded his popularity.

Herbert Hoover

U.S. president (1929-1933) whose conservative approach to the Depression emphasized voluntary cooperation and limited government aid. His failure to reverse economic collapse paved the way for FDR's election and New Deal reforms.

Smoot-Hawley Tariff (1930)

High protective tariff that raised import taxes to record levels in an effort to protect U.S. industries. Backfired by reducing international trade and worsening the global depression.

Reconstruction Finance Corporation (RFC)

Agency established by Hoover to provide emergency loans to banks, railroads, and businesses. Early attempt at federal intervention in the economy, but aid was viewed as favoring corporations over ordinary people.

Franklin D. Roosevelt (FDR)

Democratic president elected in 1932 who launched the New Deal to combat the Great Depression. Redefined the federal government's role in the economy and expanded social welfare programs.

Fireside Chats

FDR's informal radio broadcasts explaining his policies directly to the American public. Restored confidence in government and made FDR a reassuring national figure.