Psychology - Paper 3

Terminology for revision of Paper 3 theory.

Generalizability

The extent to which conclusions from a study can be applied to (generalized) contexts beyond the study itself. This is another term for external validity.

Transferability

The extent to which we can transfer the findings from one study to another context. It is the qualitative research equivalent of generalizability and means the same thing. The reason we do not use the term generalizability in qualitative research is because the sampling methods are not representative, and so the findings are never meant to be generalized.

Quantitative studies

Uses numerical data, statistical analysis, tests hypothesis.

Qualitative studies

Gathers participants’ observations, experiences, perseption, and behaviour.

Case Study

An in-depth investigation of an individual, group, or situation, often using multiple methods of data collection.

Triangulation

The use of multiple methods, data sources, researchers, or theories to increase credibility of findings.

Longitudinal Study

Research conducted over an extended period of time to observe changes and long-term effects.

Ecological Validity

The extent to which findings can be generalized to real-world settings.

Credibility

Trustworthiness of research findings in qualitative research, often established through methods like triangulation or researcher reflexivity.

Informed Consent

Ethical principle requiring participants to be fully informed about the study and give permission to participate.

Generalizability

The extent to which findings from a study can be applied to larger populations.

Method Triangulation

Using more than one method of data collection to study the same phenomenon.

Researcher Triangulation

More than one researcher studies or interprets the data to reduce bias.

Theory Triangulation

Interpreting findings from multiple theoretical perspectives (biological, cognitive, sociocultural).

Data Triangulation

Using multiple data sources in a study.

Anonymity

Ensuring participants’ identities cannot be linked to their data.

Right to Withdraw

Participants’ right to leave a study at any time without negative consequences.

True experiment (laboratory experiment)

(Experimental Method)

a) Examines the effects of an IV on a DV
b) The researcher manipulates the IV, so random allocation to the treatment or control condition is possible
c) Takes place in a controlled environment, and extraneous variables are controlled

Field experiment (Experimental Method)

a) Examines the effects of an IV on a DV
b) Takes place in a naturalistic setting
c) Control of extraneous variables is not always possible

Quasi-experiment

(Experimental Method)

a) Examines the effects of an IV on a DV
b) One or more conditions of a true experiment can’t be met, e.g. no random allocation is possible
c) “In quasi-experiments, participants are grouped based on a characteristic of interest, such as gender, ethnicity, or scores on a depression scale” (IB Psychology Guide,p. 37)

Natural experiment

(Experimental Method)

a) Examines the effects of an IV on a DV
b) The IV is naturally occurring
c) Extraneous variables may not always be controlled

Note: There is often not a clear distinction between a quasi-experiment and a natural experiment.

Correlational study (Non-experimental method)

a) Does not have an IV or DV, but has co-variables
b) Test the strength of relationships of co-variables by calculating a correlation coefficient
c) Values of coefficients range from -1.0 to 1.0

Case study (Non-experimental method)

a) An in-depth investigation of an individual, small group, or organization

b) Multiple methods are used to gather data (which is what makes them “in-depth”)
c) They often use a combination of quantitative and qualitative methods

Survey

a) Gathers data on a large number of participants
b) Uses data-gathering techniques such as questionnaires

c) Often calculates correlations between co-variables

Naturalistic observations

a) Subjects ' behavior is observed in a naturalistic environment.

b) Field notes and other data gathering techniques are used
c) Observations may be followed by interviews

Covert and overt observations

a) Covert = subjects are not aware they are being observed
b) Overt = subjects are aware they are being observed
c) Usually take place in naturalistic environments in qualitative research

Participant and non-participant observations

a) Participant = the researcher becomes a member of the group they are observing
b) Non-participant = the researcher stays removed from the group they are observing

Qualitative interviews

a) Face-to-face discussion involving the researcher asking questions to the participants
b) The researcher gathers qualitative data
c) There are many different types of qualitative interviews

Semi-structured interviews

a) An interview that follows an interview schedule — it includes an outline of topics to be covered, but allows for deviation and elaboration
b) Can include a combination of open and closed questions
c) It resembles a conversation

Unstructured interviews

a) The interviewer has topics to cover, but there is a lot of freedom, and the precise questions and order are not fixed
b) Can include open and closed questions
c) The interview evolves as a result of the interactions between the researcher and the interviewee

Focus group interviews

a) A group interview (about 6-10 participants)
b) Focus groups rely on group processes and the interaction of individuals to help reveal information that might not be revealed in individual interviews

c) The interviewer acts as a moderator, and, if done well, the interview will resemble a group discussion

Random sampling

When every member of the target population has an equal chance of being selected.

The aim is to obtain a sample that is representative of the target population.

It can reduce the chance of sampling bias

Convenience/opportunity Sampling

Gathers participants who happen to be available for study at a convenient time or place.

It is based on convenience, for both researcher and participant.
Depending on the nature of the study, it may lead to sampling and/or researcher bias.

Volunteer/self-selected sampling

Participants are the ones that approach the researchers and volunteer to participate in the study.

There is typically some form of marketing that calls for volunteers.

Participants may have more commitment to the study due to the fact that they volunteered.

Purposive sampling

Participants who share characteristics that are relevant and of interest to researchers are asked to participate in the study.

It may use snowballing methods to gather the sample.

They may be recruited through a range of methods, including direct contact or referral from someone else.

Snowball sampling

A group of initial participants (called “seeds”) invite others to participate in
the study.

The sample keeps growing in size until the desired size has been reached.

It is particularly useful when studying “hidden populations” (people who do
not want others to know about them or who are hard to find).

Triangulation

The use of an additional method is methodological triangulation. This could increase the credibility (qualitative) or reliability (quantitative) of the study if similar findings are reported

If using this explanation, consider if there is a reason to think that the study would benefit from triangulation

Experimental research

Effects of an IV on a D V

An experiment may be conducted if there is a reason why researchers may want to study the effect(s) of one or more variables on a particular behavior

Perhaps a different type of experiment could be conducted(e.g. a field experiment) to test the effects in a naturalistic setting. Alternatively, a laboratory environment could be proposed to control for extraneous variables. A natural experiment could be used if a naturally occurring IV could be identified

An experimental method could test hypotheses generated from a qualitative study

Correlational study

Relationships between co-variables

This could be a suitable method if there are two co-variables that can be identified in the study and researchers can see how strongly they are connected

The correlational method could deduce the strength of the relationship. This could lead to further development of hypotheses

Naturalistic observations

Observing behavior n a naturalistic environment

This could be a suitable method if prior studies have been conducted in artificial environments and/or they have gathered behavioral data using questionnaires, interviews, or other non-observational methods

Interviews

Gathering qualitative data on specific experiences

Interviews can make for valuable follow-ups to observations as they allow researchers o gain an understanding of what they have observed

Focus group interviews could be conducted to triangulate research from individual interviews, or vice versa

Informed consent

When participants agree to participate in a study and have been given enough information to make an informed decision.

Explantion:

It can reduce stress and discomfort for participants because they know what to expect. It also allows them the chance not to participate, which is relevant if there could be any negative effects from participating in the study.

Anonymity

Removing participants’ names from their data during the gathering, analyzing, and publication process.

Explanation:

Can avoid the invasion of participants’ privacy and save participants from possible embarrassment from participating in the study.

Debriefing

This happens at the end of a study and is when the researchers reveal the full nature of the study, including aims and results.

Explanation:

Can reduce the possibility of any long-term negative effects of the study. This is also important when not all information is given in the consent process.

The right to withdraw

Before the study begins, participants are assured that they can leave at any time.

Explanation:

Allows participants to avoid harm or stress by assuring them they can end their participation at any time.

Approval from an ethics review committee

Before a study can take place, in most countries, it needs to be approved by
a group of people who make sure it meets the standards of ethical research.

Explanation:

This simply makes sure that the study is judged as being ethical by an appropriate committee.

Justification for any stress or harm

If harm or stress is expected to occur, this should be reasonable and minimized as much as possible. Ethics review committees usually make the final decision about whether a study’s methodology is justified.

Explanation:

Sometimes there is the potential for participants to experience stress or harm during an experiment, but the long-term benefits should outweigh these short-term costs. This is also relevant in animal studies.

Credibility:

Generally speaking, credibility refers to the extent to which something or someone can be believed and trusted. In a research context, it refers to the extent to which the results of a study accurately represent what was being studied. If a study is credible, it means they truthfully report what really happened.

Validity:

he quantitative research equivalent of credibility, validity, refers to the accuracy of the methods in achieving the desired aims. See internal and external, as well as construct, population, and ecological validity.

Factors effecting credibility

Triangulation

• Reduce researcher bias.

• increase credibility (or validity) + generalizability ot transferring.

• Researcher triangulation - reduce researcher bias

• Method triangulation - improve credibility/validity, viewed from multiple perspectives.

• Data triangulation - increases the chances of accurate data.

Sampling

• large sample - more representative - generalizability.

Controls

• Any control of extraneous variables.

• Single- or double-blind design, control condition, counterbalancing, random allocation, or design type (repeated measures, independent samples, matched pairs)

Replication

• If replicated with similar results, increase credibility/validity

How to avoid bias

Researcher triangulation

• reduce researcher bias - could occur doing the whole process.

Method triangulation

• reduce researcher bias - mix of qualitative and quantitative methods.

Sampling

• purposive sampling - researchers select participants.

• use random, self-selected, or opportunity sampling.

Controls

• Double-blind design - reduce researcher bias.

Replication

• replicate the study to suggest no influence of researcher bias.

Bias

When an individual’ existing thoughts, beliefs, or ideas influence their thinking or behaviour. Researcher bias is when the thoughts, beliefs or ideas of the researcher are negatively influencing the results of the study in some way.

Factors influencing generalizability/transferability

Sampling

• Generalizability based on a sample is population validity.

• Quantitative studies - use of representative sampling (random sampling) increases generalizability.

• Large sample size - increases generalizability.

• Qualitative studies - small sample sizes (snowball and purposive sampling) - are not meant for transferability.

Procedure

• Does the study lack mundane realism?

Replication

• if replicated in a different context - increase generalizability