AP Euro Exam Prep

Vladimir Lenin

He led the Bolshevik (Communist) Revolution in Russia in 1917. He would lead the Communists to victory in the Civil War and would rule until his death in 1924.

Theodore Herzl

An Austrian journalist (1860-1904) who called for the creation of a Jewish homeland. This movement, called Zionism, spread throughout Europe and the United States.

Leon Trotsky

One of the leaders of the Russian Communist revolution (1917). A close supporter of Lenin, he was largely responsible for creating the Red Army. After Lenin's death in 1924, he and Stalin sought control of the party; Stalin won. He was deported in 1929 and murdered in 1940 by an agent of Stalin.

Dawes Plan

After World War I, Germany was forced to pay reparations to the Allies. Germany was not able to keep up payments, and in 1924 an American reorganized the repayment plan. The United States also made loans to Germany as part of the plan.

Thomas Malthus

He was a British author who believed that population growth was a great danger. He believed that it was impossible for agricultural output to keep pace with the expanding population and that social, political, and economic crisis would ensue if population growth was not checked.

Henri Petain

Led the French army at Verdun and eventually became Commander of the French Armies. He served as Prime Minister in 1940. When German forces deleted France, he took control of the Vichy area in 1942. Because of his cooperation with the Nazis, he was arrested and imprisoned until his death in 1951.

Bauhaus

German architect Walter Gropius (1883-1969) founded this School of Architecture. He favored clean, streamlinded buildings. Other pioneers of this "International Style" were Le Corbusier and Frank Lloyd Wright.

Mikhail Gorbachev

Became the leader of the USSR in 1985. He proposed major reforms and adopted policies of greater openness (glasnost and perestroika) and allowed Soviet-bloc states greater independence. In 1991, there was an unsuccessful attempted overthrow of his government. The USSR dissolved in 1991 with Gorbachev's resignation.

Marcel Proust

An esteemed French writer who sought to integrate psychological elements, especially regarding suppressed memories, into literature. His most famous work is the multi-volume "Remembrance of the Things Past" (1913-1927)

Cecil Rhodes

A firm believer in British rights to expand control across Africa. He successfully helped Britain gain control of South Africa and Rhodesia (named after him). Lived from 1853-1902.

Warsaw Pact

It was essentially the response of the USSR to the creation of NATO. The Pact began in 1955, with European communist nations pledging mutual military support to one another. It ended with the collapse of the USSR in 1991.

Marshall Plan

After the massive destruction in Europe, following World War II, the United States propsed an economic plan in 1947 to help restore the region. Aid was provided to any European nation that promised cooperation (Soviet-bloc nations did not participate). The plan was very successful.

Great Hunger/Great Famine

Beginning in 1845, a sever blight struck the European potato crop. In Ireland, the results were devastating and millions died, with even more immigrating to Canada and the United States. The event is also called the Potato Famine.

Otto von Bismarck

This dude, master of Realipolitik, was chancellor of Prussia from 1861-71. He was devoted to the Hohenzollerns (Prussian ruling family) and the unification of Germany, which occured in 1871. He continued to serve as Chancellor until he was fired in 1890 by William II.

Charles Dickens

Dickens (1812-70) was one of Britain's greatest novelists. His works often sought to show the suffering of the poor in industrial Britain. His works include "Oliver Twist" and "David Copperfield".

Socialism

The political belief that the government needs to provide extensive social and economic benefits for its citizens. This theory began in the early 1800s largely in response to the suffering of the industrial poor. Socialists also believe that the government's primary concern is the protection and care of its citizens, even if private property needs to be taken.

Truman Doctrine

The policy, begun in 1947, that the United States would not challenge existing Communist nations' right to exist, but would actively and militarily oppose any further expansion of communism. This policy of containment was followed for decades.

The Peterloo Massacre

In 1819 British troops sought to stop a peaceful meeting at St. Peter's Fields in Manchester. Citizens favoring more liberal government policies organized the meeting. Soldiers killed several in the unarmed crowd and hundreds were injured.

Pablo Picasso

One of the artistic giants of the twentieth century. Helped found the Cubist and Abstract movements. During his life, 1881-1973, he worked in various media and is noted for scores of important works. His painting "Guernica" is one of the most powerful anti-war expressions of the modern era.

Extraterritoriality

The right given to foreigners to live using their own laws rather than the laws of the nation in which they reside. Europeans and Americans in the nineteenth century often demanded and received this privilege.

Immanuel Kant

The German philosopher who postulated that experience dictates human knowledge. He also said morality rests on the "categorical imperative".

Yalta Conference

In 1945, Stalin, Churchill, and Franklin Roosevelt met to discuss postwar issues. Stalin was the winner, gaining a pro-Soviet government in charge of Poland, the division of Germany, and territory concessions in Asia as well.

Luddites

In nineteenth-century Britain, some workers, accurately predicting that the factory system would replace them, joined forces and attacked factories and destroyed machines. Their movement lasted from 1811-16.

Totalitarianism

Type of government in which the state is in almost complete control of its citizens' lives. Individual rights are virtually nonexistent; the welfare of the state is all-important. Stalin and Hitler are considered this kind of ruler.

Final Solution

The phrase used by the Nazis for their goal of exterminating all the Jews of Europe. An estimated 6 of the 11 million European Jews were murdered.

Fascism

Political and economic movement that emphasizes nationalism and militarism with a state-controlled economy. Fascism was linked to the political parties that controlled Germany and Italy before and during World War II. Personal rights are limited and obedience to the state is paramount.

Benito Mussolini

Fascist leader of Italy from 1922-45. Originally a Socialist, he was an early member of the Black Shirts, Italy's fascist party. He led the overthrow of the Italian government in 1922 and led Italy through World War II. He was assassinated in 1945.

Quadruple Alliance

In 1814 a coalition of Britain, Prussia, Russia, and Austria met and agreed to restore the pre-Nepoleonic balance of power as well as to restructure boundaries.

United Nations

During World War II, Allied leaders decided to establish an international organization devoted to promoting peace. It was formally established in 1945.

William Morris

Founder of the Arts and Crafts movement. This movement rejected mass production of products and sought to revitalize careful hand production of goods.

"Iron Curtain"

This phrase, coined by Winston Churchill, in a 1946 speech, referred to the dangers of the increasing Soviet control and domination of Eastern Europe.

Kaiser William II

Kaiser (German term for emperor) who began ruling in 1888. He was determined to expand German influence and greatly increased the size of Germany's military. He led Germany into World War I and abdicated the throne in 1918.

Robert Owen

British idealist who believed that industrial workers and owners needed to work cooperatively in order to create an ideal working and living situation.

Enrico Fermi

One of several important physicists of the twentieth century whose work led to the splitting of the atom. He was also instrumental in the Manhattan Project (development of the atomic bomb).

Mary Shelley

This lady, wife of Percy B. Shelley, is most famous for her romantic novel. "Frankenstein". Its message was that man should not try and imitate God or challenge nature.

Holocaust

The term means "burnt offering" and refers to the Nazi efforts (1933-45) to exterminate the Jews in Europe. Of the 11 million European Jews, 6 million were murdered.

Carl Jung

Swiss psychiatrist who was noted for his work dealing with archetypes. He also believed in the theory of collective unconscious (this refers to a dimension of human subconscious that all members of a particular social group would share).

The Hundred Days

When Napoleon escaped from exile at Elba and returned to France in March 1815, he led an army into Paris, causing Louis XVIII to flee and Napoleon to rule France again until Great Britain, the Netherlands, and Prussia sent troops to stop him.

Waterloo

Battle on June 18, 1815. The allied powers under the direction of the Duke of Wellington defeated Napoleon, who then abdicated to the Bourbon monarch and was again exiled, this time to St. Helena, where he died in 1821.

Concordat

1801 agreement with the Pope engineered by Napoleon to end the rift after the 1790 Civil Constitution of the Clergy. This recognized France as largely Catholic but guaranteed religious freedom. The Church agreed to give up claims to lands the revolutionaries had seized and sold.

The Consulate

First five years of Napoleon's rule as dictator after his 1799 coup d'etat in which he had sole power to propose new laws that the legislature could only approve or reject.

Napoleonic Code

One of Napoleon's most substantial achievements was the Civil Code of 1804, which centralized the disorganized body of French laws, safeguarded property rights, and upheld conservative attitudes toward women and labor organizations.

The Directory

Lasting from 1795-99, this was the final stage of the French Revolution. Consisted of a five-man rule; they generally favored the wealthier class and were corrupt and unpopular. Napoleon ended their rule.

Girondins versus Jacobins

Both were political groups in the National Convention. Girondins were republicans from the Gironde department who feared Parisian domination of France. The Jacobins favored Parisian control.

Committee on Public Safety

1793 committee of the National Convention to direct the army in defeating foreign invasion and root out "enemies of the Revolution." Created universal draft in the name of national security.

Reign of Terror

Directed by Jacobin Maximilien Robespierre to suppress all opposition to the Revolution within France. Lasted from September 1793-July 1794. Ended with Robespierre's execution by those fearing his fanatical policies.

The National Convention

Governed by the French Republic from 1792-95, members were elected through universal male suffrage and became divided along political lines. Declared the end of the monarchy. Brought Louis XVI to trial and executed him and his wife.

Civil Constitution of the Clergy

In 1790, the increasingly liberal National Assembly enacted policies that made the Catholic clergy employees of the French government. It deeply upset devout French Catholics.

Constitution of 1791

National Assembly's constitution that limited the king's authority and divided the government into three branches- judicial, executive, and legislative. The resulting government proved week and feel prey to radical control.

Treaty of Utrecht

Ended the War of Spanish Succession in 1713, recognizing France's Philip V as King of Spain, but prohibited the unification of the French and Spanish monarchies. England gained profitable lands in North America from France.

Catherine the Great

Romanov ruler of Russia from 1763-96 who supported enlightened additions to Russian culture and expanded Russia's borders to include control of the northern shores of the Black Sea, the Crimea, Polish land, and Alaska.

Pragmatic Sanction

Just before his death in 1740, Charles VI released this sanction. It urged all constituent Austrian lands to allow his daughter, Maria Theresa, to inherit Austria and other Hapsburg lands, despite the fact that she was a woman.

Hohenzollerns

Ruling family of the small German state of Brandenburg, Prussia, which grew into an empire under their reign, to become the Austrian Hapsburgs' chief rival.

Frederick William

Hohenzollern ruler of Branderbug, Prusia, after the end of the Thirty Years' War. Known as "the Great Elector" who improved and rebuilt the state.

Frederick William I

Son of Prussian King Frederick I who ruled from 1713-40. He channeled royal funds toward militarizing Prussia, creating an efficient tax system and establishing compulsory education.

Frederick II (the Great)

Son of Prussian King Frederick William I and ruler of Prussia from 1740-86. He seized Silesia from Austria, starting the War of Austrian Succession and then Diplomatic Revolution.

Ottoman Empire

Centered in Constantinople, the Turkish imperial state that conquered large amounts of land in the Middle East, North Africa, and the Balkans, and fell after World War I.

William Laud

Archbishop of Canterbury under Charles I in England. He tried to force the Scottish to use the English Book of Common Prayer. He was later executed by Parliament during the English Civil War.

Vulgate

Latin translation of the Bible by JErome (348-420 C.E.) ad adopted as the standard version by the Catholic Church.

Versailles

The opulent French palace built by Louis XIV just outside of Paris. It represented the ostentation and absolute power of his monarchy. Louis required all of his important nobles to live there so he could control them.

War of Spanish Succession

War fought by European powers after the death of the last Hapsburg ruler of Spain in 1700, which left the throne to Louis XIV's grandson. Ended with the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713.

Romanovs

Russian imperial dynasty that strengthened absolutism in Russia. Ruled from 1613-1917, when the Revolution forced Nicholas II's abdication.

Peter the Great

Romanov ruler of Russia from 1682-1725. He brought Western European ideas to Russia, improved the Russian army, achieved control of the Orthodox Church, dominated the nobility and transformed Russia into a major world power.

Millets

Groups of religious and ethnic minorities who formed administrative units. These units were governed by laws particular to their needs within the Ottoman Empire.

Mary Queen of Scots

Catholic relative to Protestant Queen Elizabeth I of England. She allegedly plotted with Spain's Philip II to overthrow Elizabeth and reassert Catholicism in England. Elizabeth had her beheaded.

Spanish Armada

Fleet of 130 ships launched by Spain's Catholic Philip II to conquer England during the time of Elizabeth I. England was victorious in defeating the Spanish, who never again posed a decided threat agains England.

Separatists (Puritans)

Radical Protestants in England who believed Henry VIII did not take extreme enough measures in merely creating the Anglican Church. They favored "purifying" the new Anglican Church of all similarities to the Catholic Church.

"Lebensraum"

German word meaning "living space." The Nazis claimed the German people deserved more room to expand and used this as a justification for invading neighboring nations.

European Community

It was formed in 1970, and was an outgrowth of the Common Market nations. European nations allied economically in order to compete against larger nations, such as the United States and Canada. Original members included France, Italy, England, Spain, Portugal, Greece, Finland, Ireland, and Sweden.

Nikita Kruschev

Leader of the USSR from 1953-64. While famous for his "we will bury you" comment to the United States, he also opened communication with the West, particularly the United States. He also ended Stalinist purges in the USSR.

Carlsbad Decrees

Extremely repressive laws adopted in 1819 in Prussia and the German Confederation. The decrees were meant to discourage liberal views and movements.

Kellog-Briand Pact

Agreement proposed by American Secretary of State Frank Kellogg in 1927. An outgrowth of World War I, the pact denounced war as a way to resolve conflict and was endorse by over 50 countries within 5 years.

Ivan IV

Romanov ruler of Russia known as Ivan the Terrible. He was a fierce ruler who laid the groundwork for the westernizing of Russia that was later continued by Peter the Great. Ivan IV's rule of intimidation lasted from 1547-1584.

Nicholas II

The last czar of Russia, he abdicated in 1917 and was murdered in 1918 along with his family. Though generally regarded as a decent man, he was an extremely weak and ineffective leader.

James Watt

Scot who invented the steam engine in 1869.

Charles V

Hapsburg ruler of Spain from 1516-56. Elected Holy Roman Emperor in 1519. He defended the Hapsburg lands from the Ottomans and decided to split the Hapsburg Spanish and Holy Roman lands between his son, Philip II, and his brother, Ferdinand I.

William of Orange

Ruler of the Netherlands who led a revolt for independence against Hapsburg Philip II of Spain.

Trench Warfare

From 1914-18, both the Allied and Central Powers quickly became entrenched, especially in the West. Due to massive artillery strikes and attrition, both sides relied on warfare in the trenches. The trench network stretched from Belgium to southern France.

Zimmermann Telegram

In 1917, German Foreign Secretary Zimmermann sent what was supposed to be a secret message to the government of Mexico. He asked Mexico to attack the United States, and Germany would, in turn, support MExican territory claims in the southwest United States. The message was intercepted by the British, who gave it to the United States, and it was one of the major reasons the United States entered World War I.

Battle of Jutland

In 1916 the Germans and British navies me for the only major naval engagement of the war. Although the British actually suffered more losses than the Germans, the German navy was so damaged that it retreated and was unable to challenge Britain's highly effective blockade.

Treaty of Versailles

One of the treaties of Paris (1919) that ended World War I. It incensed Germans because of its harsh terms for reparations, territory, and control.

Archduke Franz Ferdinand

Also known as Frances Ferdinand, he was the heir of the Austrian-Hungarian Empire. He was assassinated in Sarajevo in 1914. This event sparked a series of actions that led to the beginning of World War I.

Lusitania

The British passenger ship torpedoed by the Germans in 1915, who claimed munitions were on board. Over 1,000 died, including Americans, and this event helped turn American opinion against Germany.

Great Depression

In 1929, the collapse of the New York Stock Exchange triggered a virtually worldwide financial crisis that came to be known as this. Extensive trade barriers between industrial nations also contributed to the problem.

"The Irish Question"

The dispute initiated by Protestant Britain's takeover of Catholic Ireland in the 1700s and Britain's continued control of Northern Ireland has caused tension and violence between the two for centuries.

D-Day

One June 6, 1944, U.S., Canadian, and British forces invaded German-held France at Normandy. It was a decisive Allied victory.

Beer Hall Putsch

In 1923 the Nazis attempted to overthrow the government in Munich. It was a total failure, and Hitler received a brief prison sentence during which time he wrote "Mein Kampf".

Battle of Britain

After quickly defeating most of Western Europe, the Nazis launched an aerial attack against Great Britain in 1940. Believing that the bombing raids would force England's surrender, the raids, targeting both military and civilian targets, lasted until 1941. The British Army withstood the brutal Luftwaffe assault, and Hitler shelved his plan for the invasion of Britain.

Impressionism

Artistic style developed in France in the late 1800s that employed light, shadow, color, and varied brush strokes to leave the viewer with a more natural impression. Claude Monet, Mary Cassatt, and Auguste Renoir pioneered the style.

Institute of Government of 1653

Oliver Cromwell's attempt at creating the first written constitution of England provided landowners the power to elect MPs (members of parliament).

Nicolaus Copernicus

The Polish scientist who worked in the 1500s. HE abandoned the largely accepted geocentric theory that the planets moved around Earth and advocated the heliocentric theory, which stated that the center of the universe was near the Sun.

Roger Bacon

Franciscan monk, English philosopher, and scientist in the 1200s who advocated for a system of scientific experimentation in seeking truth rather than accepted without question traditional Church and ancient beliefs. This led to the development of the scientific method.

Jesuits

A religious order known as the Society of Jesus, created to strengthen support of the Church during the Counter-Reformation. Founded by Ignatius de Loyola in 1534, these "solders of the Counter-Reformation" were committed to doing good deeds in order to achieve salvation.

Huguenots

Converts or adherents to Calvinism in France, including many from the French nobility wishing to challenge the authority of the Catholic monarch. Also known as French Protestants.

Kristallnacht

"Night of broken glass," occurring in November 1938. This marked the beginning of overtly violent Nazi attacks against the Jewish population in Germany.

Weimar Republic

The name of Germany's fledgling post-World War I democracy. Named for the seat of government, it was beset by social and economic problems and ended with the election of Hitler.

Predestination

John Calvin's belief that at the beginning of time, God had preselected who among all people would be saved and have salvation, a group known as the "elect." This group was expected to follow the highest moral standards and be completely dedicated to God's wishes.

Edict of Nantes

Decreed by French King Henry IV in 1598, it granted Huguenots limited political freedoms and the freedom of worship and brought temporary civilian peace. Very unpopular in France among Catholics. Revoked by Louis XIV in 1685, leading to a massive emigration of French Huguenots.

Council of Trent

Summoned by Pope Paul III to try and define Catholic doctrine and thwart Protestant attacks on Catholic beliefs. These meetings did not reform the doctrines but did end several corrupt practices criticized by Reformers within the Church and reasserted traditional Catholic doctrine.

Index of Forbidden Books

Written by Pope Paul IV as part of the Counter-Reformation. It forbade Catholics from reading books considered "harmful" to faith or morals. This indicates the significance of the printing press in disseminating Reformation ideas.