Third Reich Chemistry

liver and kidney cortex

where does glycogen metabolism primarily occur (2)

a-d-glucose

what is glycogen the homoplymer of?

a-1,4

where is the linkage in glycogen

a-1,6

where is the branching located in glycogen

osmotic stress

This phenomenon is defined by the leaking out of the cell due to the difference in concentrain. Storing glucose and glycogen reduces this and is less energetically costly for the cell

Fuel reserve

purpose of glycogen to be broken down and mobilized to maintain blood glucose levels in between meals. Can provide energy especially in straineous activity

Muscle and liver glycogen

this type of glycoden is degraded for other organs and maintaining proper blood glucose levels. This is used for energy production

Glycogen phosphorylase, debranching enzyme, phosphoglucomutase

name the three enzymes for glycogenolysis 

release of glucose as glucose-1-P

step one of glycogenolysis, repeated cleavage of glycogen into smaller parts

Glycogen phosphorylase

enzyme for cleaving the residual glucose in glycogen . Cleaves up until 4 units of residue is left from the branch point

Glucose-6-phosphate; phosphoglucomutase

glucose-1-P cannot leave the cell and go to the bloodstream so it must be converted to ______________ by __________

Re-modeling of Glycogen

step 2 of glycogenolysis. -molding prior to further degradation occurs near the branching point. Via transferase.

transferase

what is the enzyme for step 2 (remodeling of glycogen)

de-branching

step 3 of glycogenolysis. a-1,6 glycosidic bond is cleaved by an a-1,6-glucoosidase to produce glucose 6-phosphate

a-1,6-glucosidase

for step 3 in glycogenolysis, what enzyme is used to turn glucoose into glucose 6-phosphate

Further release of glucose-1-P

step 4 of glycogenolysis, core glycogen structure is broken and phosphorylated into 12 parts. This is donen by glycogen phosphorylase

Glycogen Phosphorylase

enzyme for step for in glycogemolysis

Liver

G1P is dephosphorylated in this part of the body as it enters the blood cells from the hepatiic cells to maintain proper blood glucose levels and transported too other organism

glucose 6-phophatase and glucose

what does glucose 1-phosphate become in the liver: First, and second

phosphoglucomutase and glucose 6-phosphate

first and second enzymes used in the the turning of G1P Into glucose 1-phosphatase

liver

where is the only part of the body where glucose 6-phospatase is present

Muscle

in this part of the body G1P is broken down for its own needs. Turning glucose-1-phosphate and 6-phosphate done through glucose-6-phosphate

Phosphoglucomutase

enzyme used in the G1P breakdown in the muscle turning it into glucose

UDP-glucose phosphosphorylase, glycogen synthase, Branching enzyme

enzyme invovled in glycogenesis

UDP-Glucose

activated form of glucose that serves as glucose donor for glycogen synthesis, sugar nucleotide

a-D-glucopyranose, a-d-glucopyranose-6-phosphate, hexokinase

step 1 of Glycogenesis: input, output, enzyme

a-D-glucopyranose-6-phosphate, a-d-glucopyranose-1-phosphate, phosphoglucomutase

step 2 of Glycogenesis: input, output, enzyme

a-d-glucopyranose-1-phosphate, UDP Glucose, UDP-glucose pyrophosphorylase

step 3 of glucogenesis: input, output, enzyme

UDP-glucose, glycogen, glycogen synthase

stpe 4 addition of glucose into glycogen: input, output, enzyme

Glycogen synthase

enzyme of addition of glucose into glycogen. Cannot link together 2 glucose molecules and can only extend an already existing a-1,4 glulcan chain. Requires primer of 4 or more glucose molecules in length synthesized by the enzyme glycogenin. 

OH group

where does UDP-glucose attach in TYR^194 residue?

breaks the a-1,4 link then a-1,6 branch; solubility is increase

step 5 of glycogenesis: process and result

70-100mg/ 100ml

normal blood glucose level

insulin

uptake of glucose from the bloodstream, promotes glycogenesis and inhibits glycogenolysis 

Epinephrine

muscle hormone to stimulate glycogen breakdown to glucose

glucagon

stimulates glycogen breakdown to glucose in liver

Pancreas secrete insulin; glycogenesis; elevated blood glucose

what happens when you eat a carbohydrate rich meal

secretes glucagon; glycogenolysis; lowered blood glucose level

what happens when you are fasted

adrenal glands secrete epinephrine; glycogenolysis; adrenaline rush

what happens when stressed

increas blood glucose, insulin secretion, no glucose available for energy

why lethargic after a meal?

Regulatory cascade

G-protein coupled receptor, FDP, binding of epinephrine/glucagon to GDP replaced by GTP. Activates G-protein activates adenylyl cyclase

Adenylyl cyclase

enzyme in regulatory cascade that converts ATP to cylcil AMP an intracellular single. ATP → cAMP + PPi

phosphoproteins kinase A

what does camp activate in adenylyl cyclase

Phosphorylase kinase

what does PKA activate after phosphorylating

Activate; inhibits

interaction of PKA phosphorylation to glycogenolysis and glycogenesis

Diabetes Mellitus Type 1

insulin-dependent diabetes. Deficiency in insuly caused by autoimmune destruction

Diabetes Mellitus Type 2

Insulin-resistant diabetes. Non-responsive to insulin due to defect of insulin receptro.

Glucose

primary fuel of the brain and red blood cell. 160g of ————- needed a day. w/ 75% used for the brain. 

Gluconeogenesis

synthesis of glucose through non carbohydrate precursors

Liver, cortex of kidney

2 sites for gluconeogenesis

Glycerol, glycerol-3-phosphate + dihydroxyacetone phosphate, glycerol kinase and glycerol phosphate dehydrogenase

glycerol gluconeogenesis: input output enzyme

lactate dehydrogenase

Lactate to pyruvate enzyme in gluconeogenesis

Carbon skeleton of most amino acids

gluconeogenesis alternative, involved in the transamination reaction; if needed, alpha keto acid converted to ocaloacetate

a-keto acid + glutamate; transaminase/aminotransferase

amino acid & a-ketoglutarate; output and enzyme

pyruvate + glutamate; alanine aminotransferase

alanine + a-ketoglutarate; alternative gluconeogenesis

oxaloacetate + glutamate; aspartate aminotransferase

aspartate + a - ketoglutarate; gluconeogenesis alt

pyruvate, oxaloacetate; pyruvate carboxylase

step 1 pyruvate-phosphoenolpyruvate: input, output, enzyme

OAA, Malate, Mitochondrial malate & cytosolic malate

step 2 pyruvate-phosphoenolpyruvate: input, output, enzyme

NADH

Gluconeogenesis cannot proceed when ______ is unavailable

PEP carboxykinase

oxaloacetate into phosphoenolpyruvate enzyme

fructose 6-phosphate; fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase

fructose-1,6-bisphosphate GNG process

glucose-6-phosphatase

ennzyme of glucose-6-phosphate → glucose

Insulin, F 2,6-bP, AMP, F 1,6-bP

list the four activators in glycolysis

ATP, Citrate, ala

list the four inhibitors in glycolysis

glucagon, citrate, acetyl CoA

list all Gluconeogenesis activators

F-2,6-bP, AMP, ADP

list all gluconeogenesis inhibitors

ETC and Krebs

what stops during strenous exercise

lactate production

Conditions become anaerobic that pyruvate is diverted for __________

Cori Cycle

Lactate accumulation in the muscle is suppresed by the ________

Hypoxia

on what conditions is Cori cycle under

lactic acidosis

what does cori cycle prevent

Cori Cylce

how much atp is produced in cori ctlce

Photosynthesis

process by which organisms convert CO2 into sugars with the use of energy coming from sunlight. Conversion of light energy into chemical energy

6CO2 + 6H2O → Glucose + Oxygen

general formula for photosynthesis

Chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b and carotenoids

Pigments in chloroplasts (3)

Protoporphyrin

precursor to plant metabolism, resembles hemoglobin structure

conjugated double bonds

why are chlorophylls excellent light harvesters

magnesium

Chlorophylls or protoporphyrin has this instead of iron ions

Accessory Pigments

Absorbs most energy available in singlight; extends range of absorption not absorbed by chlorophyll

absorbs all light wavelength except green

why are plants green

Light Reaction & Calvin Cycle

two phases of photosynthesis

Light reaction

light energy is converted to chem energy producing ATP and NADPH in the thylakoid

Dark Reaction/ Calvin Cycle

CO2 fixation from sugars, uses ATP and NADPH in the stroma

Excitation of Electron in Pigments

first step in Light reaction wherein sunlight excites nad loss of excitement pgiment molecules. releases heat and a non-productive process.

Resonance energy transfer

capturing of solar energy through the co-transfer to neihboring pigment molecules

Successive electron transfers

excited e- is passed to other cells which in turn forces another cell to donate an electron to the previously oxidized cell

Photosystems

transduce light into chemical energy

Z scheme

NADPH (NADP + reductase. p700), ATP (ETC is stroma), O2 (PS II, HWO splitting), non-cyclic photophosphorylation

true

light excites both photosystems in light reaction? true or false

photosystem II

where is oxygen produce in light reaction

P680

where does the e- from splitting H2O go to ini light reactions?

Electron transport chain and cytochrome complex

how and where is atp generated in light reaction

P700

where is e- transported in light reaction after cytochrome complex

NADPH and NADH+ reductase

what is generated at the end of light reaction and its enzyme

plastoquinone

enzyme complex before cytochrom complex after Photosystem II

plastocyanin

complex after cytochrom complex after light reaction

Cyclic electron Flow/ Photophosphorylation 

Happens when NADP+ is not availablle wherein E- is cycled back into ETC between psii and psi, this generate ATP

Calvin-Benson Cycle/ C3 Photosynthesis

happens in stroma where sugar is fixed to hexose, using NADPH and ATP

CO2 + ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate, 2 3-phosphoglycerate, ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate-carboxylase-oxygenase

step 1 of C3 photosynthesis; input output enzyme

3-phosphoglycerate, 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate, phosphoglycerate kinase

step 2 of C3 photosynthesis: input output enzyme