13.2 Friendship

friend

a peer with whom an individual has an intimate, reciprocated, and positive relationship

determinants of children’s friendships

factors including friendliness, similarity in interests, cognitive maturity, academic motivation, proximity, age, gender, and racial/ethnic group

proximity

the physical nearness of peers that influences friendship formation, especially in childhood — less important with age as children become more mobile and form friendships based on shared interests and values

age group influence

in industrialized countries, age is a major factor in friendships, particularly due to school segregation by age

gender Preference in friends

girls tend to befriend girls and boys befriend boys, with preferences for same-gender friendships emerging in preschool and becoming more pronounced as children grow older, influenced by socialization and cultural norms

race/ethnic group friendship tendency

children tend to befriend peers from their own racial or ethnic group but the likelihood of such friendships varies across contexts

developmental changes in friendship

changing nature of friendships from simple playmates in early childhood to deeper emotional connections in adolescence

12-18 months

display a preference for some children over others by touching them, smiling and engaging in positive interactions

24 months

begun to develop skills that allow greater complexity in their social interactions

3-4 year olds

• can make and maintain friendships with peers, have at least one they call their best friend

• preschool — prefer playing with same-gender peers and this preference continues through middle school

5 years onward

• communicate more often with one another/cooperate and work together effectively

• fight with each other more often, but they are more likely to negotiate their way out of conflict

9 years old

seem to become more sensitive to the needs of others and to inequalities in the ways some groups of people are treated compared to other groups

adolescence

is a period where friendships become more complex and emotionally significant, with a greater emphasis on intimacy and loyalty

selman

suggested that changes in children’s reasoning about friendships are a consequence of age-related qualitative changes in their ability to take others’ perspectives

how electronic communication facilities help the creation and maintenance of friendships

1. greater anonymity: leads children to reduce their social inhibitions

2. less emphasis on physical appearance

3. more control over interactions

4. finding similar peers

5. 24/7 access

6. its fun

   • concern about the effects that these modes of communication may have on social development — and especially on social relationships

rich-get-richer hypothesis

children with good social skills benefit more from technology in forming friendships and are likely to enhance their existing social networks

social-compensation hypothesis

social media may benefit lonely, socially anxious adolescents by allowing them to communicate more comfortably and form connections they might struggle to make in person

friendship emotional support

friends provide emotional support and validation, especially during transitions, impacting psychological functioning

support and validation

support of friends can be particularly important during periods of transition and can help individuals cope with stress and improve their overall well-being

development of social and cognitive skills

• provides a context for the development of social skills and knowledge that children need to form positive relationships with other people

• those who maintain positive relationships with friends also tend to show more understanding of empathy with other’s emotions

peer socialization hypothesis

argues that adolescents adapt their behavior based on peer influences

peer selection hypothesis

proposes that adolescents select friends who share similar behaviors

aggression and disruptiveness

children who have peers with behavior problems experience more problematic behaviours themselves over time

alcohol and substance abuse

• adolescents tend to have friends who engage in the same levels of alcohol and substances use as they do

• peer socialization and peer selection processes may explain tendency

bullying and victimization

a common experience resulting from power imbalances, often affecting LGBTQ+ youth, immigrant youth, and those with early puberty

why bully?

• engage to seem powerful to their peers and to gain power and status

• influenced by a range of individual, home, school, neighbourhood and societal factors

relational aggression

a form of aggression involving exclusion from social groups and damaging relationships.

gender differences in friendships

girls tend to desire more closeness in friendships and experience more emotional ups and downs compared to boys