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friend
a peer with whom an individual has an intimate, reciprocated, and positive relationship
determinants of children’s friendships
factors including friendliness, similarity in interests, cognitive maturity, academic motivation, proximity, age, gender, and racial/ethnic group
proximity
the physical nearness of peers that influences friendship formation, especially in childhood — less important with age as children become more mobile and form friendships based on shared interests and values
age group influence
in industrialized countries, age is a major factor in friendships, particularly due to school segregation by age
gender Preference in friends
girls tend to befriend girls and boys befriend boys, with preferences for same-gender friendships emerging in preschool and becoming more pronounced as children grow older, influenced by socialization and cultural norms
race/ethnic group friendship tendency
children tend to befriend peers from their own racial or ethnic group but the likelihood of such friendships varies across contexts
developmental changes in friendship
changing nature of friendships from simple playmates in early childhood to deeper emotional connections in adolescence
12-18 months
display a preference for some children over others by touching them, smiling and engaging in positive interactions
24 months
begun to develop skills that allow greater complexity in their social interactions
3-4 year olds
can make and maintain friendships with peers, have at least one they call their best friend
preschool — prefer playing with same-gender peers and this preference continues through middle school
5 years onward
communicate more often with one another/cooperate and work together effectively
fight with each other more often, but they are more likely to negotiate their way out of conflict
9 years old
seem to become more sensitive to the needs of others and to inequalities in the ways some groups of people are treated compared to other groups
adolescence
is a period where friendships become more complex and emotionally significant, with a greater emphasis on intimacy and loyalty
selman
suggested that changes in children’s reasoning about friendships are a consequence of age-related qualitative changes in their ability to take others’ perspectives
how electronic communication facilities help the creation and maintenance of friendships
greater anonymity: leads children to reduce their social inhibitions
less emphasis on physical appearance
more control over interactions
finding similar peers
24/7 access
its fun
concern about the effects that these modes of communication may have on social development — and especially on social relationships
rich-get-richer hypothesis
children with good social skills benefit more from technology in forming friendships and are likely to enhance their existing social networks
social-compensation hypothesis
social media may benefit lonely, socially anxious adolescents by allowing them to communicate more comfortably and form connections they might struggle to make in person
friendship emotional support
friends provide emotional support and validation, especially during transitions, impacting psychological functioning
support and validation
support of friends can be particularly important during periods of transition and can help individuals cope with stress and improve their overall well-being
development of social and cognitive skills
provides a context for the development of social skills and knowledge that children need to form positive relationships with other people
those who maintain positive relationships with friends also tend to show more understanding of empathy with other’s emotions
peer socialization hypothesis
argues that adolescents adapt their behavior based on peer influences
peer selection hypothesis
proposes that adolescents select friends who share similar behaviors
aggression and disruptiveness
children who have peers with behavior problems experience more problematic behaviours themselves over time
alcohol and substance abuse
adolescents tend to have friends who engage in the same levels of alcohol and substances use as they do
peer socialization and peer selection processes may explain tendency
bullying and victimization
a common experience resulting from power imbalances, often affecting LGBTQ+ youth, immigrant youth, and those with early puberty
why bully?
engage to seem powerful to their peers and to gain power and status
influenced by a range of individual, home, school, neighbourhood and societal factors
relational aggression
a form of aggression involving exclusion from social groups and damaging relationships.
gender differences in friendships
girls tend to desire more closeness in friendships and experience more emotional ups and downs compared to boys