Energy, Metabolism, Photosynthesis, Cellular Respiration, and Genetics

These flashcards cover key concepts related to energy, metabolism, photosynthesis, cellular respiration, genetics, DNA, protein synthesis, and biotechnology as discussed in the lecture.

What are the three types of energy mentioned in the lecture?

Potential, kinetic, and chemical.

What is metabolism defined as?

The sum of all chemical reactions in a living organism.

What is the difference between exergonic and endergonic reactions?

Exergonic reactions release energy, while endergonic reactions require energy.

What is the equation for photosynthesis?

6CO2 + 6H2O + sunlight → C6H12O6 + 6O2.

Where does photosynthesis occur?

In the chloroplast.

What does the Calvin cycle do?

It makes glucose and involves the enzyme RuBisCO.

What is produced during glycolysis?

Glucose is converted to pyruvate, yielding a net gain of 2 ATP.

What happens during the Krebs cycle?

It produces CO₂ and electrons that are transferred to the electron transport chain (ETC).

What is the role of the ETC in cellular respiration?

Oxygen is reduced to water, and most ATP is produced here.

What occurs during fermentation when oxygen is low?

Lactate is produced in animals, and ethanol and CO₂ are produced in yeast.

What is apoptosis?

Programmed cell death.

What are the stages of the cell cycle?

G₁ → S → G₂ → M (mitosis).

What are the phases of mitosis?

Prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.

What is the difference between diploid and haploid chromosome numbers in humans?

Diploid = 46 chromosomes, Haploid = 23 chromosomes.

What is the purpose of meiosis?

To produce gametes (haploid cells).

What mechanisms contribute to genetic variation during meiosis?

Crossing over, independent assortment, and random fertilization.

How many divisions occur in meiosis compared to mitosis?

Meiosis involves 2 divisions, while mitosis involves 1 division.

What is a zygote?

A fertilized egg.

What is an allele?

A variant of a gene.

What is the difference between dominant and recessive alleles?

Dominant alleles mask the expression of recessive alleles.

What do Punnett squares illustrate?

They illustrate genetic crosses such as monohybrid, dihybrid, and X-linked inheritance.

Describe semiconservative DNA replication.

Each new DNA strand contains one old strand and one new strand.

What is transcription in the context of DNA and RNA?

The process of converting DNA into RNA.

What is translation in the context of RNA and protein synthesis?

The process of converting RNA into protein.

What are introns and exons?

Introns are noncoding regions, while exons are coding regions of a gene.

What is Chargaff's rule?

A=T and G=C in DNA base pairing.

What are purines and pyrimidines?

Purines include A and G, while pyrimidines include C, T, and U.

What is a point mutation?

A mutation involving a single base change in the DNA sequence.

What is a frameshift mutation?

A mutation caused by insertion or deletion that shifts the reading frame of the genetic code.

What are transposons?

Also known as jumping genes, they can change their position within the genome.

What are some key terms in biotechnology?

PCR, genomics, transgenic organisms, gene therapy, gene pharming.

What is a vector in biotechnology?

A vehicle that carries DNA into a host organism.

What are some reasons for engineering plants?

To enhance disease resistance, improve nutrition, and increase yield.

Why is animal cloning less common?

Due to ethical concerns and the complexity of the process.