AP Psychology Unit 1 - Neuroscience

really specific. lowkey just added this to knowt because i made it in google sheets but wanted to review interactively so sorry for the "" randomly appearing. it took me 30 minutes to even figure out how to keep all the line breaks while importing manually because of csv formatting. ahhhh

Term

Definition

Nervous System Organization

SECTION HEADER

Central Nervous System (CNS)

makes decisions & sends messages to peripheral nervous system (to spread further & take action); brain + spinal cord

neural networks

brain's neurons clustered in groups; allows associated neurons to have faster/shorter connections; wires neurons so they "fire together"

spinal cord

considered part of CNS, BUT it's a two-way connection between PNS & brain

ascending neural fibers (spinal cord)

in spinal cord; send sensory info UP to brain

descending neural fibers (spinal cord)

in spinal cord; send motor-control information DOWN from brain

reflex

simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus; through a SPINAL REFLEX ARC, which skips the brain & instead sends directly from sensory neuron --> interneuron --> motor neuron

spinal reflex arc

process through which a reflex operates; sensory neuron (receives signal) --> interneuron (in spinal cord) --> motor neuron (carries out response directly, WITHOUT notifying brain)

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

proliferates messages from CNS to other parts of body (to take action); more far-reaching across limbs; includes autonomic (sympathetic & parasympathetic), somatic (sensory & motor) nervous systems

Somatic Nervous System

controls VOLUNTARY MOVEMENTS. uses sensory neurons (PNS)/input --> sends to CNS (interneurons process) --> motor neurons (partially in CNS, partially in PNS) decide & send messages back out --> somatic/skeletal neurons (PNS) send the messages to muscles/skeletal

"Autonomic Nervous System

controls SELF-REGULATED processes within organs; includes sympathetic (arousing) nervous system and parasympathetic (calming) nervous system
affects: glandular activity, blood pressure, heartbeat, digestion, etc; usually operates on its own, but can be consciously overriden

"
Sympathetic Nervous System

arouses & expends energy; "fight or flight"; accelerates heartbeat, raises blood pressure, SLOWS** digestion, raises blood sugar, perspiration, action

Parasympathetic Nervous System

calms & conserves energy; "rest and digest"; slows heartbeat, lowers blood pressure, STIMULATES** digestion, stimulates bladder etc

homeostasis

steady internal state; maintained by balance between sympathetic & parasympathetic nervous systems (both of which are PNS)

Neural Communication

SECTION HEADER

Neuron

nerve cell that makes up the nervous system (brain, nerves, spinal cord, etc)

Dendrite

RECEIVE info from other neurons/axons; fibers/bushy and branching extensions from the neuron; receive & integrate messages by conducting impulses toward cell body

Cell Body (Soma)

main part of neuron that contains nucleus & supports cell life

axon hillock

area near the start of an axon, where action potentials build up (especially due to the activity of binding excitatory/inhibitory neurotransmitters at the dendrites); once reach threshold potential, fires the axon

Axon

PASSES messages to other neurons' dendrites; neuron extension that passes messages through the branches to OTHER neurons/muscles or glands

Axon Terminal

ends of axon that form junctions in the synapse w/ other cells/neurons (don't touch dendrites, but get close)

Myelin Sheath

fatty tissue layer that SEGMENTALLY covers the axon of some neurons; speeds up impulses/transmission speed significantly (doesn't cover all, leaves some lack of coverage)

afferent neurons

neurons that send messages from OUTSIDE back INTO the central nervous system; help the CNS make decisions

efferent neurons

neurons that send messages from CNS (inside) back TO the outside body; helps create action in the body

Sensory Neurons

AFFERENT; carries INCOMING info from body tissues & sensory receptors --> brain/spinal cord for processing

Motor Neurons

EFFERENT; carries OUTGOING info from brain/spinal cord --> muscles/glands for movement or other reactions

Interneurons

neurons within BRAIN & SPINAL CORD (CNS), between sensory input & motor output. PROCESSES INPUT & decides exact output to send to motor neurons.

Glial Cells

cells that protect neurons like "glue cells," support neurons around them by providing nutrients & insulating myelin sheaths; guide neural connections, clean up ions & neurotransmitters; have to do with learning/thinking/memory

"Resting Potential

INSIDE AXON: negative (large negative protein ions, some smaller K+ ions)
OUTSIDE AXON: positive (many Na+ ions in the axon membrane)

"
selective permeability

axon's surface/membrane only lets in some ions at certain times, and doesn't let in Na+ unless transporters open

Depolarization

loss of charge difference between inside/outside of axon; if reaches threshold potential, sends a signal down the axon

"Action Potential

*according to our class (i think we are defining it like ""graded potentials""): anytime it goes above resting potential, NOT necessarily going to fire. just the potential of it firing/creates the potential of action/firing, but has to pass the threshold voltage (follows all-or-none principle)

technically, this is when the ""all or nothing"" kicks in and then fires

"
Threshold (potential)

voltage/charge that the action potential must reach at the axon hillock (end near the axon) to cause the entire electrical signal to be fired down the axon; usually ~-55 mV (not as negative as before)

All-or-None Principle

the principle that a neuron can only fire completely at full strength, or not at all; determined by the action potential being high enough

neural impulse

an action potential that specifically passes the threshold & is enough to send an electrical signal down the axon

Refractory Period

a period after a neural impulse (action potential that was high enough) where the neuron CANNOT fire; must first repolarize (go back to resting), hyperpolarize (get more negative for a moment), and then restore the resting potential

Synapse

meeting point between two neurons, junction between axon tip (sending neuron) & dendrite/cell body (receiving neuron).

synaptic gap/cleft

specifically the tiny space between axon terminal branches/dendrites where the chemical exchange occurs

Neurotransmitter

CHEMICAL messengers that cross synaptic gap/cleft to bind to receptor on receiving neuron; specificity of receptors; shorter-lived than hormones, which stay for longer in bloodstream

Excitatory (neural signals)

MORE POSITIVE (closer to action potential). constantly existing neural signal within a neuron; usually by neurotransmitter --> causes more + to flow into axon hillock; if > inhibitory, then action potential triggered, & if HIGH enough depolarization, axon FIRES

Inhibitory (neural signals)

MORE NEGATIVE (further from action potential). constantly existing neural signal within a neuron; usually by neurotransmitter --> causes less +/more - to flow into axon hillock; if > excitatory, then action potential is NOT triggered and stops firing

3 fates of neurotransmitter

1. drifting away from receptors; 2. broken down by enzymes near receptors; 3. reuptake by the sending neuron

Reuptake

reabsorption of neurotransmitters by the sending neuron; stops neurotransmitters from staying in synapse/continuing to bind to receiving neuron (which would be overstimulation)

neurotransmitter reuptake transporter

located on axon terminal of sending neuron; reuptakes neurotransmitter; can be **blocked by drugs (i.e. reuptake inhibitors, RIs)

"Agonists (*drugs)

specifically a drug/added to system; increases neurotransmitter's action somehow:

1. increases production/transmission of neurotransmitter

2. blocks reuptake of neurotransmitter

3. binds to receptors even better than the original neurotransmitter… etc **TECHNICALLY, this is the REAL definition (#3), but i think our class is defining it like anything that increases the activity. sorry y'all im a biology fan and my psychology class is too unbiological

"
"Antagonists (*drugs)

specifically a drug/added to system; decreases neurotransmitter's action somehow:

1. decreases production/transmission of neurotransmitter

2. binds to receptors but antagonistically/stops the neurotransmitters from binding

3. breaks down neurotransmitters themselves… etc

"
Reuptake Inhibitors

drugs that inhibit the reuptake of a neurotransmitter; a type of AGONIST, bc they increase the activity of a neurotransmitter

selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs)

drugs that inhibit the reuptake of serotonin, selectively (don't affect other reuptake transporters); often used as antidepressants; e.g. Prozac

Neurotransmitters

SECTION HEADER

"GABA

neurotransmitter

• INHIBITORY

• calming, brain stabilizer in general (not specifically mood but affect overall)

low:

• anxiety

• epilepsy, seizures, tremors

• insomnia

"
"Glutamate

neurotransmitter

• EXCITATORY

• learning/memory, increases likelihood of neurons firing/creating connections

high:

• overstimulation of brain

• migraines, seizures

"
"Acetylcholine (ACh)

neurotransmitter

• excitatory (usually)

• **Alzheimer's disease

• attention, memory (long-term & short-term of knowing tasks/locations)

• muscle action/movement

low:

• Alzheimer's disease (ACh-producing neurons deteriorate)

"
"Dopamine

neurotransmitter (+ hormone)

• inhibitory (usually)

• **pleasure/happy chemical

• pleasure, emotion, voluntary muscle movement, motivation/reward

• learning/attention (less so)

high:

• schizophrenia - losing control of brain activity

low:

• Parkinson's - tremors, decreased mobility

"
"Serotonin

neurotransmitter (+ hormone)

• inhibitory (usually)

• **mood regulation and stability

• **depression & other mood disorders

low:

• depression

• aggression, impulse control

"
"Norepinephrine

neurotransmitter (+ hormone)

• excitatory

• **alertness & arousal

• increases blood pressure & heart rate

high:

• anxiety

• bipolar disorder (manic)

low:

• depresses mood

• depression

• bipolar disorder (depressive)

"
"Endorphins

neurotransmitter

• inhibitory (usually)

• natural painkiller (natural morphine) - like a ""runner's high,"" experienced joy after exercise

effects:

• **INHIBITS pain transmission by INHIBITING release of Substance P; stops pain receptors from feeling as much pain

"
"morphine

NOT a neurotransmitter, but an agonist

• mimics endorphins by reducing pain

"
"Substance P (dw about it)

• for our class, dw about this one
  neuropeptide, not a neurotransmitter

• sends pain signals to the brain

• inhibited by endorphins

"
oxytocin

neurotransmitter AND hormone (also in hormone section, see there for details)

"adenosine

neurotransmitter

• regulates the HOMEOSTATIC SLEEP DRIVE by building up throughout the day

"

Endocrine System & Hormones

SECTION HEADER

Endocrine System

glands throughout body; secrete HORMONES (not neurotransmitters) into BLOODSTREAM; "slow" chemical communication system

Hormones

chemical messengers, manufactured by ENDOCRINE GLANDS; travel through BLOODSTREAM & reach other tissues/affect those tissues; stays LONGER than neurotransmitters do

"Hypothalamus

regulates various bodily functions - see limbic system/brain section for that. ALSO within endocrine system, controls pituitary gland (which sends signals to other glands according to hypothalamus' regulation of functions); ""bridge"" between nervous (brain) & endocrine system

location:

• below thalamus, in center of brain ish, leaning closer to the front

• almond-sized

"
"Pituitary Gland

most influential endocrine gland; master gland, triggers other glands (e.g. sex glands) to secrete; controlled by hypothalamus; releases growth hormone (growth) & oxytocin (sexual functions/bonding)

location:

• pea-sized structure

• core of brain

• ALSO part of limbic system (around thalamus, amygdala, and hippocampus)

"
"thyroid gland

affects metabolism, growth, digestion; releases hormones like thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3)

location:

• around throat area

"
"parathyroid glands

regulates calcium levels in blood; releases parathyroid hormone (PTH)

location:

• 4 small things on the back of the thyroid

"
"pancreas

regulates blood sugar; releases insulin (reduces blood sugar) & glucagon (increases blood sugar)

location:

• upper left quadrant of the abdomen

"
"adrenal glands

mainly in response to stress (fight, flight, freeze); functions associated with metabolism, some reproductive functions; releases adrenaline/epinephrine, norepineprine (noradrenaline), & cortisol (fight or flight)

location:

• top of each kidney (2 of them)

"
"pineal gland

regulates sleep-wake cycles and circadian rhythm (through melatonin release); releases melatonin when dark (encourages sleep); may release estrogen/progesterone

location:

• deep within brain

• small pocket/pouch looking thing

• below thalamus area/near back of brain

"
"testes/ovaries

regulates reproductive/sexual secretion; secretes testosterone (male) & estrogen (female)

location:

• near pelvic regions

"
Adrenaline (Epinephrine)

hormone released in response to stress/fight-or-flight response; increases heart rate/blood pressure and perspiration; secreted by adrenal glands

Ghrelin

hormone; encourages hunger; secreted by stomach cells

Leptin

hormone; decreases hunger/signals to stop eating, increases food storage; secreted by adipose tissue (fat - to store energy there) & (kind of) stomach cells

Melatonin

hormone; released when dark, encourages sleepiness; major regulator of circadian rhythm; secreted by pineal gland

Oxytocin

hormone; released during activities like labor, breastfeeding, bonding with children; secreted by pituitary gland (produced by hypothalamus)

prolactin

hormone; released during breastfeeding/nursing

Brain Structures & Functions

SECTION HEADER

"Hindbrain

one of oldest parts of brain (though that's the brainstem); contains medulla, pons, and cerebellum; regulates many automatic survival functions (see medulla, pons, cerebellum - heartbeat/breathing, movements and sleep, movement and coordination)

location:

• lower back of head, directly above spinal cord

"
"Brainstem

*oldest part of the brain (evolutionarily speaking); regulates automatic survival functions (see medulla & pons - heartbeat/breathing, movements and sleep); connects brain to spinal cord

• crossover point between two sides of brain (since it connects the brain to the control of the body through the spinal cord)

• contains hindbrain parts except cerebellum

• also contains midbrain (NOT in hindbrain)

"
"Medulla

controls heartbeat and breathing

location:

• base of brainstem, right as the spinal cord swells & enters skull

"
"Pons

coordinates movements and controls sleep (*specifically, the transitioning between sleep stages; hypothalamus and SCN control the wakefulness)

location:

• right above the medulla

"
"reticular formation

neuron network reaching up to lower/middle brain; another pathway for spinal cord sensory input --> thalamus; controls arousal & multitasking (more sensory input

location:

• from spinal cord and brainstem --> thalamus; inside brainstem

• between the ears

"
"Reticular Activating System (RAS)

subset of reticular formation, regulates arousal & consciousness; promotes alertness/wakefulness when activated

location:

• top of reticular formation

"
"Cerebellum

coordinates voluntary movement; enables NONVERBAL learning & skill memory (nondeclarative memory); judge time, modulate emotions, discriminate sounds/textures

location:

• lower back of brain, baseball-sized

• extends from rear of the brainstem

"
"Forebrain

front of the brain; contains thalamus, pineal gland, and pituitary gland (according to our class)

technically also: hypothalamus, cerebrum (most amount of matter overall), limbic system**, olfactory bulb, basal ganglia

"
"olfactory bulb

receives information related to smell

location:

• forebrain area, stretching from inside (near hypothalamus) and out into the nose area

"
"basal ganglia (dw)

(dw about this) chooses specific motions (vs cerebellum which is more about fine-tuning and coordinating movements after they've been chosen)
technically also part of limbic system anyway?

"
"Limbic System

contains amygdala, hypothalamus, thalamus, hippocampus (and nucleus accumbens); associated with emotions and drives

location:

• between cerebral hemispheres AND BELOW the ""lid"" of the brain which is the cerebrum!, but ABOVE the brainstem area

"
"Thalamus

sensory control center (EXCEPT smell) --> sends input higher into the brain for processing in sensory regions; sends some information back to cerebellum; ""grand central station"" (exchange point)

(memory trick: hypothalamus connects nervous system & endocrine system; thalamus connects PNS and sensory spinal cord with brain)

"
"Amygdala

regulates aggression/fear** and fight-or-flight** (""emergencies""); also regulates emotion

location:

• 2 lima-bean-sized neural clusters
• near bottom/middle of brain

"
"Hippocampus

processes CONSCIOUS/EXPLICIT memories, forms NEW MEMORIES of facts/events; decreases in size/function as we get older

location:

• in limbic system/forebrain area but below hypothalamus (ish)
• seahorse-like structure (sure)

"
"Hypothalamus

regulates various bodily functions/drives; e.g. hunger, thirst, body temperature, sleep/wakefulness (*SCN), sexual behavior and drives; maintains homeostasis; connects nervous & endocrine system; linked to emotion/reward
*see also ""endocrine system"" to see how it controls pituitary gland to secrete various hormones

location:

• just below the thalamus

"
"nucleus accumbens

creates a sense of reward/pleasure; acts as a reward center in limbic system

location:

• in front of hypothalamus

"
Cerebrum

two major cerebral hemispheres of brain; covered by cerebral cortex (top layer) and connected by corpus callosum (in the middle); mainly for higher functions