stress and anxiety disorders (18)

stress

a physiological reaction caused by the perception of aversive or threatening situations

fight-or-flight

short run stress response

autonomic, endocrine

long term adverse health effects associated with chronic stress result from the __________ and __________ responses

walter b cannon

introduced the term “fight-or-flight” in the 1920s

increased blood sugar, dilated pupils, sympathetic nervous system, stress

walter b cannon noticed that animals had symptoms such as __________ and __________ when exposed to aversive stimuli due to __________ activation; did not use the term __________

hans selye

introduced the term “stress” in 1950

endocrinologist, mcgill, hormone

hans selye was an __________ at __________ and during his stress studies, originally thought he was discovering a new __________

the same nonspecific response

hans selye noticed that rats exposed to a variety of aversive stimuli had __________

nonspecific, demands placed on it

hans selye defined stress as the __________ response of the body to __________

adrenal cortex, thymus, weight loss, ulcers

symptoms hans selye observed in rats included enlarged __________, involution of the __________, __________, and __________

general adaptation syndrome

hans selye’s model of stages undergone when exposed to a stressor

alarm, resistance, exhaustion

3 stages of general adaptation syndrome

vulnerability to stress, HPA axis

according to studies by hans selye, removal of the adrenal gland resulted in __________ via the __________

exhaustion phase, GAS model

hans selye theorized that death is reaching the __________ of the __________ with regard to the overall stress of life

sympathetic adrenal-medullary system/SAM

stress system that releases epinephrine and norepinephrine from the adrenal medulla

epinephrine, NE, adrenal medulla

SAM regulates stress by releasing __________ and __________ from the __________

hypothalamus, sympathetic NS, adrenal medulla, fight-or-flight response

SAM is controlled by the __________ and the __________; when activated, signals are sent to the __________ to enact the __________

quickly, entirely within the brain

the fight-or-flight response occurs very __________ because it is mediated __________

hypothalamic pituitary adrenal axis/HPA

stress system that releases glucocorticoids from the adrenal cortex

hypothalamus, pituitary gland

the HPA axis is controlled by the activity of the __________ and the __________

corticotropin-releasing hormone/CRH, paraventricular nucleus/PVN, hypothalamus, adrenocorticotropic hormone/ACTH, bloodstream, adrenal cortex, cortisol

HPA axis response: __________ is released from the __________ of the __________, which stimulates release of __________, which travels through the __________ to stimulate the __________ to release __________

slow, several minutes

the HPA axis is a __________ system; it can take __________ for cortisol levels to increase

cortisol

glucocorticoid released from the adrenal cortex via the HPA axis

glucose, energy

the HPA response has profound effects on __________ metabolism, causing an increase in __________

prefrontal cortex

a stronger/healthier __________ results in less vulnerability and more control during stress

amygdala, heightened

in someone with a weakened/atrophied prefrontal cortex, the __________ takes over, causing a __________ stress response

amygdala

brain structure important in regulating both SAM and HPA

hippocampus

recognizes settings where stress was previously experienced to determine if a given setting is “safe”

stressful settings, HPA axis

with regard to stress, the hippocampus is important for recognizing __________ and regulating the __________

prefrontal cortex, PVN, amygdala, hippocampus, locus coeruleus, nucleus tractus solitarius

6 neural structures important in stress

brainstem, hypothalamic, SAM

physical stressors mostly engage the __________ and __________ areas that regulate __________

locus coeruleus, nucleus tractus solitarius/NTS, paraventricular nucleus/PVN

3 areas that regulate SAM and are engaged during experience of physical stressors

immediate, reflexive, primary appraisal

response to physical stressors is __________, almost __________, and enables __________

complex, SAM, HPA

psychological stressors are more __________ and involve __________ and __________

prefrontal cortex, amygdala, hippocampus, PVN, VTA

5 brain areas involved in psychological stress

cognitive appraisal

role of the prefrontal cortex during psychological stress

amygdala, immediate, appraisal

the __________ can learn to be triggered by specific stimuli so the stress response is __________ and no longer requires __________

amygdala

a healthy prefrontal cortex prevents overactivation of the __________

indirectly, PVN, BNST, HPA axis, amygdala

the prefrontal cortex projects __________ to the __________ via the __________ to either inhibit or activate the __________; it also projects to the __________

inhibitory control, GABA

the amygdala is normally under __________ via a localized __________ system

GABAa, amygdala

anti-anxiety meds increase __________ receptors in the __________

excitatory, PFC, thalamus, hippocampus

the amygdala receives __________ inputs from the __________, __________, and __________

basolateral amygdala

contains conditioned responses to stress by holding local memories of previous responses

central nucleus, brainstem, PVN, hypothalamus, SAM, HPA

the amygdala produces outputs from its __________ to the __________ and __________ of the __________ to trigger __________ and __________ responses

episodic memories, spatial information

the hippocampus is important for forming __________ and encoding __________

dentate gyrus

part of the hippocampus important for pattern separation and detecting novelty

amygdala, contexts

the hippocampus signals to the __________, triggering stress responses to __________ associated with stressors

glucocorticoid, HPA axis

the hippocampus has a high number of __________ receptors, by which it regulates the __________

steroid, BBB

cortisol is a __________, which allows it to enter the __________

intensity of response, hippocampus, blood sugar, glucocorticoid

flashbulb memories occur due to the __________ in the __________ when __________ spikes due to __________ release during traumatic events

blood sugar

the hippocampus is vulnerable to changes in __________

prolonged secretion of glucocorticoids, excitation

most of the harmful effects of stress are produced by __________ because there is no interim during which the body can recover from __________

immune, wound healing

the __________ system and __________ are suppressed during stress response

HPA axis, PVN

the hippocampus regulates the __________ by projecting to the __________

dendritic complexity, volume, long-term potentiation, memory issues

chronic stress causes reduced __________ and __________ in the hippocampus, resulting in reduced __________ which causes __________

alzheimer’s

reduced long-term potentiation in the hippocampus increases risk of __________

long-term potentiation

persistent strengthening of synapses crucial for learning and memory, making neurons more efficient at sending signals after repeated stimulation

neurogenesis, depression

chronic stress blocks __________ in the hippocampus, an effect which is also associated with __________

aerobic exercise

can increase neurogenesis and counteract effects of stress

dendritic density, volume, anxiety, hippocampal

chronic stress increases __________ and __________ in the amygdala which in turn increases __________ especially because there are less __________ cells to dampen this effect

natural stressors, hippocampus, spatial learning

rats exposure to __________ suppresses mechanisms in the __________ relating to __________

early in life, adults

effects of stress experienced __________ last longer than those from stressors experienced as __________

7.2, dorsomedial prefrontal cortex, emotional reactivity

adults who experienced emotional abuse in childhood had a __________% decrease in volume of the __________, causing more __________ later in life

lateral amygdala, cortex, contextual memories of stress

rats subjected to prenatal stress developed an increase in volume of the __________, which receives input from the __________ and forms __________

fetal development

cortisol release/emotional reactivity is increased in adult rats whose mothers were stressed during __________

adrenalectomized

there is no effect of stress on rat offspring if the mother was __________

glucocorticoids, glucocorticoid receptors, inhibition, HPA axis

circulating __________ during development increases stress response by decreasing levels of __________, causing less __________ of the __________

psychoneuroimmunology

study of brain regulation of the immune system

autonomous, periphery, regulated by the brain

the immune system was once thought to be __________, constrained to the __________ and not __________

ader and cohen

conducted studies pairing immune suppressants with a particular taste to provide evidence that the immune system could be classically conditioned

the brain, stress, suppresses immune function

it is now known that immune function is regulated by __________ and that susceptibility to infectious disease is increased by __________ because it __________

NE, glucocorticoids

the immune response is dampened by high levels of __________ and __________

antibodies

people undergoing high levels of stress show lower levels of __________

undesirable, upper respiratory infections

diary studies show an increased number of __________ events 3-5 days prior to the appearance of __________

immunoglobins

stress decreases __________, which accounts for greater susceptibility to infectious disease

daily hassles

susceptibility to a cold virus directly injected into the nose is strongly correlated with standardized psychometric measures of __________

michael meaney

conducted studies with rat pups of high grooming mothers to determine effects on stress response

reduced stress responses

michael meaney determined that rat pups of high grooming mothers showed __________ as adults

increased GABA receptors, reactivity, increased glucocorticoid receptors, inhibition

michael meaney’s rat pups of high grooming mothers showed __________ in the amygdala, which dampened __________ and __________ in the hippocampus which resulted in more __________ of the HPA axis

8.7%

lifetime prevalence of PTSD in north america

women

like most anxiety disorders, PTSD is more common in __________

30-80%

what percentage of refugees exhibit symptoms of PTSD?

20-40%

what percentage of war veterans exhibit symptoms of PTSD?

glucocorticoids

difficulty concentrating as a symptom of PTSD is caused by high levels of __________ in the hippocampus

number, duration

PTSD susceptibility increases with __________ and __________ of traumatic events

smaller

the hippocampus is __________ in people with PTSD

smaller hippocampus, vulnerability

the identical twin of someone with PTSD also has a __________, proving that this may be a __________ rather than an effect

contextual memories, differentiate between, PTSD

a smaller/less dense hippocampus means less capacity to lay down __________ and to __________ safe and stressful environments, creating a higher risk of __________

amygdala

tends to have a larger volume in people with PTSD

basolateral amygdala, prefrontal cortex

people with PTSD have more dendrites in the __________ and less inhibition from the __________

smaller hippocampus, larger/more sensitive amygdala

PTSD may be predicted by a __________ or a __________

more anxious, amygdala, hippocampus

rats who stay in the closed arms of the elevated plus maze tend to be __________ with a denser __________ and a less dense __________

less anxious, hippocampus, amygdala

rats who venture into the open arms of the elevated plus maze tend to be __________ with a denser __________ and a less dense __________

prefrontal cortex

tends to be reduced in volume and in activity in people with PTSD, leading to less inhibition of stress responses

benzodiazepines

class of drugs often used to treat anxiety disorders but tend to worsen the effects of PTSD

cortisol, negative feedback, HPA axis

PTSD can be treated by administration of __________ to provide additional __________ to reduce activity of the __________

anxiety disorders

most common psychiatric disorders

30%

approximate prevalence of anxiety disorders

amygdala

anxiety disorders involve increased activation of the __________

amygdala

in adolescents with generalized anxiety disorder, images of angry faces shown for 17 msec caused activation of the __________