ALL AP PSYCH TERMS

Biological, behavioral, cognitive, humanistic, psychodynamic, social-cultural, evolutionary

7 Perspectives of Psychology

Eclectic Approach (Biopsychosocial)

Looks at all the 7 approaches and sees which one fits someone best

Valid
Reliable
Replicable
Empirical
Operational Definitions
Generalizability

Qualities of Good Research

Case studies

detailed description of a particular individual or group based on observation or testing usually of rare phenomenon

Observational Studies

observing and recording behavior without any interference

Halo Effect (Halo Errors)

type of cognitive bias through which overall positive feelings for a person or object carry over to specific qualities which can interfere with objectivity (we have a positive view of what we're observing)

Observer bias

when a researcher's expectations or preferences influence the outcome of an experiment, potentially skewing results (people get more conscious when they know people are observing them)

Random selection

everybody has the equal opportunity/chance to be selected, increasing the representation of the whole population in order to mirror the population

Likert Scale

a rating scale used to measure survey participants' opinions, attitudes, motives, etc.

Structured interviews

interview process that asks the same questions of all applicants, each of who are rated on established scales

Hindsight bias (I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon)

tendency to believe after learning an outcome that one would have foreseen it

Overconfidence

we tend to think we know more than we actually do; we tend to be more confident than correct

Theory

an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations & predicts behavior

Hypothesis

a testable prediction often based or implied by theory

Sampling

selecting a group of subjects (participants)

Population

anyone or anything that could be selected to be in the sample; the group that'll be sampled

Convenience sampling

collecting research from a group that is readily available

Stratified sampling

the process of ensuring the sample represents the population on some criteria

Mean

mathematical average of distribution

Median

middle score in distribution

Mode

the most commonly occurring data point

Bimodal

two most commonly occurring data points

Range

difference between highest and lowest data points

Correlational Studies

a descriptive study that looks for a consistent relationship (r) between two phenomena

Variable

a characteristic of behavior that can be described/measured by a numeric scale (Likert scale)

Correlation

a measure of how strongly two variables are related

Positive correlation

high values on one variable are related to high values on one variable; low values on one variable are related to low values on one variable (linear relationship)

Negative correlation

high values on one variable are related to low values on one variable; low values on one variable are related to high values on one variable (inverse relationship)

Uncorrelated

there's no relationship between the variables

Line of best fit (regression line)

average of the data points

Correlation Coefficient

tells how meaningful the relationship between variables are or the difference between groups

Directionality problems

a significant relationship exists between two variables (negative or positive correlation) but it's unclear what's causing the change in the other

Third-variable problems

confounding variables (other variables that cannot be controlled) in correlational research as opposed to experimental research

Illusory Correlation

perception of a relationship where one really does not exist

Independent variable

variable that the experimenter manipulates

Dependent variable

variable that the experimenter predicts will be affected by manipulations of the independent variable

Confounding variables (lurking variables)

any stimulus introduced in the research that affects the participant's behavior

Control group

isn't exposed to experimental condition/treatment

Experimental group

is exposed to experimental condition/treatment

Group matching

ensures that control and experimental groups are equal on some criterion; they are split up evenly (ex: even number of males and females)

Placebo

an inert/inactive substance (or fake treatment) used as a control in a medical/chemical experiment

Placebo effect

experimental results were caused by expectations alone (expectations = results)

Single blind

experimental subjects dunno what they're receiving

Double blind

neither experimenters not subjects know who's receiving what

Response or subject bias

our likelihood of responding to the researcher in a way we think/perceive they'd like us to

Social Desirability Bias

subjects would want to avoid disappointing the experimenters and change their response to satisfy the experimenters; they're peer pressured into changing their response

Hawthorne Effect

subjects act differently because they're being observed

Counterbalancing

using subjects as their own control group; using the same group of subjects as the control and experimental

Quasi-Experimental Research

when an experiment doesn't randomly assign subjects/participants → prevents research from reflecting the true population

Cross-sectional

a representative cross section/group of the population is studied at one time → done quickly

Longitudinal

one group of subjects is studied over a period of time → done slowly

Cohort Effect

influence of being part of a group bonded on the basis of the time period or certain life expectancy

Descriptive Statistics

Organize data so that we can communicate about that data; look at data in a meaningful way with frequency distribution

Descriptive Statistics

Pie Chart, Bar Graphs (Frequency Histograms), Frequency Polygons

68-95-99.7

Empirical Rule

Inferential Statistics

Answers the question: "What can we infer about the population from data gathered from the sample?"

Meta-Analysis

statistical procedure for analyzing the result of multiple studies to rely on over all conclusions

Psychoactive Drugs

Chemicals that change the chemistry of the brain, altering perception and mental process

Mental set

Perceptual theory that you get what you expect

Chemical, mental set, environment

Psychoactive drugs alter brain chemistry through

Agonist & antagonist

Types of chemicals

Tolerance

Diminished effect of the drug with the same dosage

Reverse tolerance

A condition in which less and less alcohol causes intoxication

Psychological Dependence (Addiction)

Craving the feeling of a drug; you crave the drug's effect

Physiological Dependence (Addiction)

Going through withdrawals without drugs

Withdrawals

Pain/discomfort of the lack of the chemical

Stimulants

Drugs that excite neural activity (raises energy) & speed up body functions

Caffeine, nicotine, PCP, amphetamines (adderall), meth (ecstasy, MDMA), cocaine

Stimulants

Depressants/Sedatives

Drugs that slow down CNS activity, induce sleep, decrease activity, & create feeling of euphoria

Alcohol, barbiturates, tranquilizers, anti-anxiety/benzodiazepines (valium)

Depressants/Sedatives

Hallucinogens (Psychedelics)

Drugs that cause changes in perceptions of reality, including sensory hallucinations, loss of identity, and vivid fantasies

Hallucinogens

____ stay in body for a long time

Hallucinogens

_'s effects are less predictable

LSD, Mescaline (Peyote), mushrooms, marijuana

Hallucinogens (Psychedelics)

Amotivational syndrome

Loss of ambition and drive; a characteristic of long-term abusers of marijuana.

Opiates

Drugs that work as agonists for endorphins, reducing levels of GABA → releases large, artificial amounts of dopamine, leading to drowsiness & euphoria

Opiates

Drugs that reduce levels of GABA

Opiates

Drugs that release large, artificial amounts of dopamine, leading to drowsiness & euphoria

Opiates

_ are powerful painkillers and mood elevators

Opium, morphine, heroin, methadone, codeine, oxycontin

Opiates

Conscious, nonconscious, subconscious, preconscious, unconscious

Levels of consciousness

Conscious

Awareness (information about yourself and your environment you're currently aware of)

Sleeping

Example of conscious level

Nonconscious

Body processes we're hardly/never aware of

Digestion

Example of nonconscious level

Subconscious

Information we're unaware of but we know must exist based on our behavior

Priming

Exposure to one stimulus influences the response to a subsequent stimulus without conscious guidance/intention

• Example: reading polite words primes someone to act polite

Mere exposure effect

Tendency to develop preferences for things simply because we are familiar with them

Stereotype threat

A self-confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype

Unconscious

Psychoanalytic: repressed memories, childhood trauma

Preconscious

Consciousness/information just outside current awareness that can be easily drawn out from long-term memory ingrained in our minds

Circadian, Infradian, Ultradian

Types of Biological Rhythms

Circadian Rhythm

Rhythm that repeats roughly every 24 hours (cycle of 24 hours)

Sleep-wake cycle, hormones (like testosterone & cortisol), & body temperature

Examples of circadian rhythm

Infradian Rhythm

Rhythm that repeats once a month or once a season (infrequent)

Hibernation & animal migration

Examples of infradian rhythm

Ultradian Rhythm

Rhythm that happens more than once a day (usually a 90-minute cycle)

Sleep cycle

Example of ultradian rhythm

Sleep

A state of consciousness; we're LESS aware of our surroundings and self

Preservation & restoration

Need sleep for (think evolutionary survival) & _ (body and brain need to recover)