AP Psychology Unit 2A Flashcards

Perception

the process by which our brain organizes and interprets sensory information, transforming it into meaningful objects and events

Bottom-Up Processing “ details to big picture”

is a way our brain makes sense of information by starting with the small details and then building up to a…

Top-Down Processing “ big picture to details”

involves interpreting sensory information based on the larger context, prior knowledge and expectations

Selective Attention 

the process of focusing on a specific aspect of information while ignoring others

Cocktail party effect

ability to focus on a single conversation in a noisy environment, like a crowded party, while tuning out other stimuli

Inattentional Blindness

an individual fails to notice an unexpected stimulus in their visual field when their attention is focused on something else

Change Blindness

the failure to notice large changes in one’s environment when the change occurs simultaneously with a visual disruption

Schemas

mental frameworks that help us organize and interpret information in the world around us 

Perpetual Set

a tendency to perceive or notice some aspects of the available sensory data and ignore others 

Gestalt Psychology 

we perceive whole objects or figures (gestalts) rather than just a collection of parts 

Figure-Ground

the ability to distinguish an object (figure) from its surroundings(ground)

Binocular Depth Cues 

visual information that requires both eyes to perceive depth and distance

Retinal Disparity

when each eye sees a slightly different picture because of their separate positions on our face 

Convergence 

when our eyes move inward toward eachother to focus on a close object

Monocular Depth Cues

visual indicators of distance, and space that can be perceived using just one eye 

• relative clarity

• relative size 

• texture gradient

• linear perspective

• interposition

Relative Clarity

a depth cue where objects that are clearer and more detailed are perceived as closer, while objects that are hazier or less clear seem farther away

Relative Size

a visual cue where objects closer to us appear larger, while objects further away appear smaller

Texture Gradient

the way we perceive texture to become denser and finer as it recedes into the distance

Linear Perspective

a depth cue where parallel lines appear to converge as they recede into the distance 

Interposition

occurs when one object overlaps another, leading us to perceive the overlapping objects as closer 

Perceptual Constancies

our brains ability to see objects as unchanging, even when the image on our retina ( the size, shape or color changes)

Shape Constancy

our ability perceive an object as having the same shape, even when our angle of view or the distance from which we see the object changes 

Size Constancy

our perception that an object remains the same size, even when its distance from us changes, causing the image on our retina to change ( grow or shrink)

Color Constancy 

ability to perceive colors of objects as stable under varying lighting conditions 

Apparent Movement 

the perception of motion when there isn’t any actual movement 

Metacognition

thinking about one’s own thinking processes

Executive Functions

cognitive processes that allow individuals to generate, organize ,plan and carry out goal-directed behaviors and experience critical thinking

Prototypes

a mental image or best example of a category that aids in recognizing and categorizing objects of concepts 

Assimilation

Interpret new information in terms of an existing schema

Accommodation

adapt their existing schema to incorporate new information

Convergent Thinking

the type of thinking that is more creative and open-ended. it involves generating multiple possible solutions to a problem

Functional Fixedness

a cognitive bias that limits a person to using an object only in the way it is traditionally. it restricts the ability to see alternative uses for an item

Algorithms

systematic-step by step problem solving method that guarantees a solution if followed correctly 

Divergent Thinking

a thought process or method used to generate creative ideas by exploring many possible solutions

Heuristics

a mental shortcut or rule of thumb that helps to simplify decision-making but doesn’t guarantee a correct solution

Representativeness Heuristics

a mental shortcut used to make judgements about the likelihood of an event based on how closely it resembles a typical case. it often leads to ignoring relevant statistical info 

Availability Heuristics

a mental shortcut where people estimate the likelihood of an event based on examples

Mental Set

a tendency to approach problems in a particular way, often based on previous experiences or established patterns, which may inhibit problem-solving

Priming 

a psychological phenomenon where exposure to a stimulus influences a response to a subsequent stimulus,often without conscious awareness. it can effect how we think and act by activating certain associations in our memory 

Framing

how information is presented influences decisions and perceptions

Gambler’s Fallacy

belief that the outcome of a random event is influenced by previous outcomes. 

Sunk-Cost Fallacy

individuals continue interesting time, money or effort into a project or decision because they have already invested so much, even if the returns are poor.