Ap Exam Review #2

Wilhelm Wundt

Set up the first psychological laboratory. Used Introspection and Structuralism

Introspection

Subject is asked to record exactly their thought reactions to a simple stimuli

Structuralism

Idea that the mind operates by combining subjective emotions and object sensations

William James

Published "Principles of Psychology" and furthered Structuralism towards Functionalism

Gestalt Psychology

Against dividing thought and behavior; examine a person's total perception

Sigmund Freud

Psychoanalytic approach who believed the unconscious mind showed who a person was - caused by repression of thoughts

John Watson

Behavioralist who said that psychology must focus on observable concepts - Little Albert Study

Behavioralism

Psychology should focus on only 'observable' behavior through stimuli and responses

BF Skinner

Expanded ideas of behavioralism to include the concept of reinforcement. He became the father of Operant Conditioning

Reinforcement

Environmental stimuli that encourage or discourage a response

Eclectic

Looking at thought/behavior from multiple perspectives - play it by ear

Humanistic Psychology

Stresses choice and free will of people; we choose our action and make our own destinies

Psycho-Analytic Approach

the unconscious mind controls much of our thought and action; to understand unconscious, dream analysis and other techniques are used

Biological Psychology

Human cognition and reactions are caused by our genes, hormones, and neurology

Evolutionary Psychology

Examine human thoughts and actions through natural selection - best thoughts/traits continue

Cognitive Psychology

Examine human thought and behavior by how we interpret, process, and remember events. Why we think the way we do

Hindsight Bias

People feel that they've "known all along" after hearing research findings that they did not know

Applied Research

research that has a clear, practical application that's used in life

Basic Research

Research that does not intend to impact immediate, real-world problems

Hypothesis

Expresses the relationship between the independent and dependent variables - based on theory

Theory

Attempt to explain a phenomena in a way that generates a testable hypothesis for support

Valid Research

Measures what the researcher intended and is accurate

Reliable Research

Research results can be replicated to find identical results

Sampling

Process of selecting subjects from a totally random cross-section of society

Stratified Sampling

Sampling of random people but all of whom meet a certain criteria (age, gender, race, etc)

Case Study

Used to get a full, detailed picture of one or a small group of participants. Not generalized

Descriptive Statistics

Describe a set of data by using frequency polygons (line graphs) and histograms (bar graphs)

Central Tendency

Attempt to mark the center of distribution (mean median mode)

Positively Scewed

Central Tendency is higher because of an outlier. Mean \> Median in this case

Negatively Scewed

Central Tendency is lowed because of an outlier. Mean < Median in this case

Z Scores

Measure the distance of a result to the standard mean. Scores below mean are negative and above are positive.

Z Score \= (score - mean) / (Standard Deviation)

Correlation

Measures the relationship between two variables; positive or negative

Inferential Statistics

Determine whether or not findings can be applied to a larger population than the sample that was selected; can the information be generalized and expanded

Sampling Error

The extent to which a sample differs from the actual population

P Value

Smaller a P-Value, the more significant the findings. Must be over a P-Value of .05 (5% chance of error) to be significant

APA Ethical Guidelines

No Coercion (voluntary). Informed Consent. Anonymity. Risk (not in risk of SERIOUS harm mentally or physically). Debriefing.

Neoroanatomy

Study of parts and functions of neurons

Neurons

Individual Nerve Cells

Dendrites

Root-looking part of a neuron that connects multiple neurons when attaching to the Terminal Buttons

Axon

Wire-like structure that extends from the cell body, covered by the Myelin Sheath for protection

Terminal Buttons

Branched end of a neuron that contains neurotransmitters. Connects to Dendrites

Synapse

The space between one neuron's Dendrites and another neurons Terminal Buttons

Action Potential

When a neuron fired and sends its message through the axon to the Dendrites, then onto the next neuron

All of Nothing Principle

Neurons either fire or don't in Action Potential

Neurotransmitters

Chemicals held in the terminal buttons of a neuron that travel the synaptic gap between neurons. Excitory: make next neuron fire. Inhibitory: stops another neuron from firing

Afferent Neuron

Take information from the senses and deliver it to the brain

Efferent (Motor) Neurons

Take information from the brain and deliver it to the rest of the body

Inter-neurons

Take information once it reaches the brain and redirects it to other parts of the body or specific areas of the brain

Central Nervous System (CNS)

consists of the brain and spinal chord; transmits info to the brain

Peripheral Nervous System

Consists of all nerves not in the CNS; divided into Somatic and Autonomic

Somatic Nervous System

Controls voluntary muscle movements, receives info from the motor cortex in the brain

Autonomic Nervous System

Controls all of the automatic muscles in our body (heart, lungs, etc). Sympathetic - excited body during stress. Parasympathetic - cools body down after stress

Phineas Gage

Railroad spike through brain caused emotional distress after recovery

Lesions

Removing or destroying any part of the brain in surgery or experimentation

Electroencephalogram (EEG)

Detects brain waves and activity during different activities and functions

Computerized Axial Tomography (CAT)

Uses multiple X-Rays to create a 3D model of the brain. Only shows structure, not function

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)

Uses magnetic fields to create a model of the brain but without the radiation of X-Rays. Only shows the structure, not function

Position Emission Tomography (PET)

Shows what parts of the brain are active at a time

Hindbrain

Life Support system that controls our basic biological Functions that keep us alive - Medulla, Pons, Cerebellum

Medulla

Controls blood pressure, heart rate, and breathing rate

Pons

Connects the hindbrain to the rest of the brain; in charge of facial expressions

Cerebellum

Coordinates habitual movements, like following a target with your eyes or playing an instrument

Midbrain

Involved with sensory info and muscle movement

Forebrain

Controls how much we interpret thought and reasoning; memory involved, too

Thalamus

Recieves sensory signals from the body and sends them to the appropriate brain areas - secretary

Hypothalamus

Controls Metabolism, body temperature, endocrine systems, and hunger

Amygdala

Determines experiences of emotions

Hippocampus

Vital to memory - used Amygdala to remember emotions toward subjects

Cerebral Cortex

Outer, wrinkled part of the brain that connects neurons as we learn and grow

Left Hemisphere

Gets sensory messages and controls motor skills of the right side of the body. More concrete and logical

Right Hemisphere

Gets sensory messages and controls motor skills of the left side of the body. More spatial and creative side

Association Areas

Part of the cerebral cortex not involved in sensory info or muscle movement

Frontal Lobe

Contains Broca's (speech) and Wernicke's (Understanding Speech). Also contains the motor cortex (voluntary movements)

Parietal Lobe

Contains the sensory cortex, which receives incoming touch sensations from the body

Occipital Lobe

In the back of the brain (furthest from eyes); controls how we interpret messages from our eyes

Temporal Lobe

Process the sounds sensed by our ears, key to understanding language

Brain Plasticity

the ability for the brain to adapt and fill roles of damaged parts of the brain

Endocrine System

System of glands that secrete hormones that may affect processes in the body

Adrenal Glands

Produces adrenaline, which gets the body ready for fight-flight

Ovaries and Testes

Produce the sex hormones (estrogen - girls) (testosterone - guys)

Chromosomes

Humans have 23 pairs (46 total); made up of DNA which ontain domnant and recessive genes. Gender is determined on pair 23.

Turner's Syndrome

One X Chromosome instead of XX or XY. Cuases some physical characteristics, webbed neck

Klinefelter's Syndrome

When there's an extra X Chromosome resulting in XXY or XXX - causes minimal sexual development

Down Syndrome

Extra chromosome on 21 - most common chromosomal abnormallity

Transduction

The process of Stimuli signals being transformed into neural signals

Sensory Adaption

Decreased responsiveness to stimuli due to constant stimulation

Sensory Habituation

How much we focus on sensations determines our perception of them

Cocktail Party Phenomena

When you momentarily switch your attention to another subject (someone calls your name)

Vision

The most dominant human sense; used to gather information about the environment

Cornea

Reflected light first enters here; helps focus some of the light

Pupil

Allows light to enter the eye. Light is focused by the lens and then reflected on the Retina

Cones

Cells in the eye that respond to colors

Rods

Cells in the eye that respond to black/white

Fovea

The Center of the Retina and contains the most Cones

Ganglion Cells

Makes up the optic Nerve which transmits vision to the thalamus

Opponent Process Theory (Vision)

Sensory Receptors in the brain come in pairs - red/green, yellow/blue, and black/white

Amplitude

Height of a wave that determines how loud it is

Frequency

Length of waves that determines pitch