AP Psych Unit 9- Developmental Psychology (Myers Textbook)

Developmental Psychology

A branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span. It focuses on three major issues: nature vs. nurture, continuity and stages, and stability and change.

Zygote

The fertilized egg; it enters a two-week period of rapid cell division and develops into an embryo

Embryo

The developing human organism from about two weeks after fertilization through the second month. In the next six weeks, body organs began to form and function. By nine weeks, the fetus is recognizably human.

Teratogens

(literally “monster maker”) agents, such as chemicals and viruses that can reach the embryo of a fetus during prenatal development and cause harm

Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS)

Physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant woman’s heavy drinking. In severe cases, signs include a small, out-of-priotion head and abnormal facial features

Rooting Reflex

When something touches their cheek, babies turn toward that touch, open their mouth, and vigorously root for a nipple. Finding one, they automatically close on it and begin sucking

Sucking

A coordinated sequence of reflective tonguing, swallowing, and breathing

Habituation

Decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a visual stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner

Maturation

Biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience

Pruning Process

The process, after puberty, when the brain’s unused nerve cell connections are shut down and heavily used ones are strengthened

Infantile Amnesia

We have no conscious memories of events occurring before about age three and a half in part because major brain areas have not yet matured

(1896-1980) Jean Piaget

A psychologist that originally developed IQ tests for Pariasian children and later began studying children’s cognitive development

Schema

Build by the maturing brain, concepts or mental frameworks into which we pour our experiences and organize/interpret information

Assimilation

Interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas

Accommodation

Adapting our current understanding (schemes) to incorporate new information

Sensorimotor Stage

In Piaget’s theory, the stage (from birth to about two years of age) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities; object permanence and stranger anxiety occur

Object Permanence

The awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived. Infants younger than six months seldom understand that things continue to exist even when they are out of sight

Preoperational Stage

The stage (from about two to six or seven years of age) during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete knowledge; pretend play and egocentrism are common in this stage

Egocentrism

The preoperational child’s difficulty taking another’s point of view

Animism

Attribution of feelings/emotions to inanimate objects; ex. tea parties with dolls or being scared of the dark

Concrete Operational Stage

The stage of cognitive development (from about six or seven to 11 years of age) during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events; conservation occurs in this stage

Conservation

Lacked by children younger than six; concrete operational reasoning principle that properties such as mass and volume remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects

Formal Operational Stage

Beginning around age 12, during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts; the foundation for moral judgement

Theory of Mind

People’s ideas about their own and other’s mental states- about their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts, and the behaviors these might predict. Children develop the ability to infer other’s mental states when they begin forming it. It is difficult to understand for autistic children

ASD

A disorder that appears in childhood and is marked by significant deficiencies in communication and social interaction, and by rigidly fixated interests and repetitive behaviors

Scaffolding

Vygotsky’s Theory that supporting or coaching students as they work toward more complicated tasks can help children develop higher-level cognitive abilities

Cephalocaudal

Growing head to toe

Proximodistal

Growing inside to out

Stranger Anxiety

The fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about eight months of age

Attachment

An emotional tie with another person; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to their caregiver and showing distress in separation. Not because parents gratify biological needs but because they are comfortable, familiar, and responsive

Critical Period

An optimal period early in the life of an organism when exposure to certain stimuli/ experiences produces proper development

Imprinting

The process by which certain animals form strong attachments during an early-life critical period; called “sensitive period” for humans

Secure Attachment

60% of infants display distress when their mother leaves and seek contact when she returns. Caused by sensitive, responsive mothers

Insecure Attachment

Infants that avoid attachment and cry loudly when a mother leaves or have no response; the result of insensitive, unresponsive mothers

Temperament

A person’s characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity; plays a huge role in how our attachment patterns form

Basic Trust

According to Erik Erikson, a sense that the world is predictable and trustworthy; said to be formed by infancy by appropriate experiences with responsive caregivers and affects adult relationships and success

Self Concept

All our thoughts and feelings about ourselves in answer to the question, “Who am I?”; an understanding and evaluation of who we are, emerges gradually; At 15 to 18 months, children recognize themselves in a mirror and by school age, they can describe most of their own traits. Self-image is stable by ages eight to 10.

Authoritarian Parents

Impose rules and expect obedience. Tends to raise children with less social skill and self-esteem; ex. “Don’t interrupt”, “Keep your room clean”, “Don’t stay out late or I’ll ground you”, “Why? Because I said so”

Permissive Parents

Submit to their children’s desires and make few demands and use little punishment. Tends to raise more aggressive and immature children

Authoritative Parents

Both demanding and responsive, they exert control by setting rules and enforcing them but, also explain the reason for rules and, especially with older children, encourage open discussion when making the rules and allow exceptions. Tends to raise children with the highest self-esteem, self-reliance, and social competence

Family Self

A feeling that what shames the child shames the family and what brings honor to the family, brings honor to oneself

Adolescence

The transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty (sexual maturation) to independence; the tension between biological maturity and social dependence creates a period of “storm and stress”; As teens mature, frontal lobes develop, and the growth of myelin brings improved judgment, impulse control, and long-term planning

Kohlberg’s Levels of Moral Thinking

Kohlberg’s three stage theory: preconventional morality, conventional morality, and post-conventional morality. Critics have noted that his levels are culturally limited and appeal to individualistic cultures.

Preconventional Morality

The first stage of Kohlberg’s levels of moral thinking (before the age of nine) when we are self-focused and obey rules to avoid punishment or gain concrete rewards

Conventional Morality

The second stage of Kohlberg’s levels of moral thinking (during early adolescence) when we uphold laws and rules to gain social approval or maintain order

Postconventional Morality

The third stage of Kohlberg’s levels of moral thinking (during adolescence and beyond) when our actions reflect our belief in basic rights and self-defined ethical principles

Moral Intuitions

Quick gut feelings of effectively laden intuitions; Elevation (tingly, warm, glowy, feeling in our chests) and disgust trigger moral reasoning

Identity

Our sense of self and need to stand out but belong; according to Erikson, the adolescences’ task is to solidify a sense of self by testing and integrating various roles

Social-Identity

The “we” aspect of our self-concept; the part of our answer to “Who Am I?” that comes from our group memberships

Intimacy

In Erikson’s theory, the ability to form close, loving relationships; a primary development task in late adolescence and early adulthood

Emerging Adulthood

For some people in modern cultures, a period from late teens to mid-twenties, bridging the gap between adolescent dependence and full independence and responsible adulthood

Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development

Each life stage, from infancy to late adulthood, has its own psychosocial task:


1. Infancy (to 1 yr) = Trust vs. Mistrust
2. Toddlerhood (1-3 yrs) = Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt
3. Preschool (3-6 yrs) = Initiative vs. Guilt
4. Elementary School (6-puberty) = Competence vs. Inferiorty
5. Adolescence (teen - 20s) = Identity vs. Role Confusion
6. Young Adulthood (20s to 40s) = Intimacy vs. Isolation
7. Middle Adulthood (40s to 60s) = Generativity vs. Stagnation
8. Late Adulthood (60s to 80s) = Integrity vs. Despair

Gender

The socially constructed roles and characters by which a culture defines male and female

Aggression

Any physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt or destroy; more evident in men (especially physical whereas verbal/gossip is more common in women)

Gender Role

A set of expected behaviors for males or for females

Role

A set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave

Gender Identity

Our sense of being male or female

Social Learning Theory

The theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished; critics argue that cognition also plays a role

Gender Typing

The acquisition of a traditional masculine or feminine role

Gender Schema

Framework for organizing boy-girl characteristics that become a lens through which you view your experiences

Transgender

An umbrella term describing people whose gender identity or expression differs from that associated with their birth sex

X Chromosome

The sex chromosome found in both men and women. Females have two X chromosomes, males have one. An X chromosome from each parent produces a female child.

Y Chromosome

The sex chromosome found only in males. When paired with an X chromosome from the mother, it produces a male child

Testosterone

The most important of the male sex hormones. Both males and females have it but the additional testosterone in males stimulates the growth of the male sex organs in the fetus and the development of the male sex characteristics during puberty

Puberty

The period of sexual maturation, during which a person becomes capable of reproducing; both primary and secondary characteristics develop

Primary Sex Characteristics

The body structure (ovaries, testes, and external genitalia) that makes sexual reproduction possible

Secondary Sex Characteristics

Nonreproductive sexual traits, such as female breasts and hips or male voice quality and body hair

Spermarche

Puberty’s landmark; the first ejaculation in boys

Menarche

Puberty’s landmark; the first menstrual period

Intersex

Individuals born with intermediate or unusual combinations of male and female characteristics

AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome)

A life threatening, sexually transmitted infection caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). AIDS depletes the immune system, leaving the person vulnerable to infections

Sexual Orientation

An enduring sexual attraction toward members of either one’s own sex (homosexual orientation), the other sex (heterosexual orientation), or both (bisexual orientation)

The Fraternal Birth-Order Effect

Researcher Ray Blanchard (2008) offered these approximate curves depicting a man’s likelihood of homosexuality as a function of his number of older brothers. This correlation has been found in several studies, but only among right-handed men (as about 9 in 10 men are)

Menopause

The time of natural cessation of menstruation; also refers to biological changes as her ability to reproduce declines

Terminal Decline

Cognitive decline in the final few years of life

Social Clock

The culturally preferred timing of social events, such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement

Successful Aging

Intimacy/Love (forming close relations) + Generativity/Work (being productive and supporting future generations) = life satisfaction

Integrity

A feeling that one’s life has been meaningful and worthwhile