non comm diseases and monoclonal antibodies

what is a monoclonal antibody

Monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) are lab-made antibodies designed to specifically target a certain antigen, such as one found on cancer cells.

mono - same

clonal - identical

how to make monoclonal antibodies

• antibody prodction is induced (injected) into a mouse by immunization.

• the mouse creates antibody releasing cells

• those cells are then isolated

• Antibody releasing cells and tumor cells (that are grown in tissue culture) are fused to form a hybridoma

• antibody producing hybridomas are cloned

• monoclonal antibodies are isolated and cultivated.

how does a pregnancy test work

the reaction zone - the monoclonal antibody with enzyme (AB1) in the reaction zone attatches to the complimentary HCG in the urine. The AB1 flows through absorbant strip with urine.

the test zone - fixed AB2 attatches to the HCG that is already attatched to AB1 so it is a sandwhich assay releasing the dye enzyme.

the control zone - the leftover AB1 attatches and releases dye to show the test is conclusive

monoclonal antibody exam question: suggest why the monoclonal antibodys in the drug attatch to the cancer cells but not the healthy body cells?

• the antibodies are complimentary to the antigen on the cancer cell but healthy body cells dont have an antigen.

make sure you get the second mark by saying bodycells dont have antigens.

disadvantages of using monoclonal antibodies

• side effects, nausea etc

• expensive

• body cells can be harmed

• difficult to get the right antibody to attatch a compound to it

advantages of using monoclonal antibodies

• only effects cancer cells/bad cells

• treats a wide range of health issues

• better than chemo that effects the whole body and monoclonal antibodies dont

more about monoclonal antibodies tpo

more about monoclonal antibodies

monoclonal antibodies uses

• cancer therapy - they mark cancer cells for destruction by the immune system

• treat infectious disease - they neutralise pathogens

• pregnancy tests.

ways monoclonal antibodies can be used to treat cancer

specifically targeting cancer cells to mark them for immune destruction, blocking growth signals, or delivering toxins directly to tumors.

non comm disease defenition

Non-communicable diseases (NCDs) are long-lasting, chronic illnesses that cannot be transmitted directly from person to person.

the difference between non-comm and communicable disease

communicable; diseases that can be transferred from one person or organism to another.

non comm; Diseases that cannot be transferred between people or other organisms.

what is a risk factor

things that are linked to an increase in likelihood that a person will develop a certain disease in their life

risk factors of non comm diseases

genes - inherited and cannot be changed

lifestyle - e.g. smoking, lack of exercise, overeating

environmental factors - e.g. ionizing radiation, exposure to carcinogens (uv light, second hand smoke)

correlation and cause of risk factors

risk factors are identified by scientists looking for correlations in data, and correlation dosent always equal cause. Some risk factors arent capable of directly causing disease, but are related to another risk factor that is.

the human cost of non-comm disease

10s of millions of people die from non-comm diseases every year. They give people lower quality of life or a shorter life span.

the financial cost of non-comm disease

They cost the NHS a huge amount and people may have to move to help a loved one with a non-comm disease which can be costly and family income may reduce so overall it can really effect the country’s economy

why do carcinogens and ionising radiation increase the risk of tumors?

Carcinogens and ionising radiation increase tumor risk primarily by damaging cellular DNA, causing mutations in critical genes that control cell growth, division, and death. This damage, if not properly repaired, leads to uncontrolled cell proliferation and, over time, the development of cancerous tumors. 

ionising radiaton

Radiation penetrates the cells and damages the chromosomes, causing mutations in the DNA. This could lead to cancer.

Ionising radiation is particularly dangerous when taken directly into your body. Well known sources of radiation are:

• UV light from the sun

• Radon gas in granite-rich areas such as Cornwall and the Penines

• X-rays

• Accidents in nuclear power stations.

what is cancer

a non-communicable disease caused by uncontrolled cell division and growth, resulting in the formation of a cluster of abnormal cells called a tumour.

risks and benefits of chemotherapy

what is a tumor

an abnormal mass of cells formed when cells begin dividing uncontrollably through mitosis, even when the body does not need them. These growths can be either benign or malignant

benign tumors

• small

• slow growing

• non invasive

• well differenciated

• stay localized - stay where they are and cant invade

malignant tumors

• large

• fast growing

• invasive

• poorly diffirentiated

• metastasize - they will infiltrate, destroy surrounding tissue then metastasise to other parts of the body.

• they will spread through your body in the blood and may lodge in other organs. This is called metastatis and the secondary tumors are called metastates.

lung cancer

• risk factors - smoking, air pollution, radon gas, family history

• areas of the body - lungs

• ways to reduce - dont smoke, healthy diet, regular exercise

skin cancer

• risk factors - exposure to sun, sunbeds, fairskin, redheads, age, family history, sunburn, other conditions, moles+freckles

• areas - skin

• ways to reduce -sun cream, avoid sunbeds, hat and sunglasses on sunny days

cervical cancer

• risk factors - hpv virus, smoking, stis, overweight, long term use of oral contraceptives, pregancy, family history

• areas - cervix, vagina, womb

• ways to reduce - condoms, hpv vaccine, regular smear tests

breast cancer

• risk factor - age, genes, race,

• areas - collarbone, armpit, breast, chest

• ways to reduce - breast mammograms regularly, excersise, healthy diet, breast feeding can reduce risk.

brain cancer

• risk factor - age, medical radiation, previous cancers, genetic history, overweight, smoking, alcohol

• areas - brain

• ways to reduce - dont drink, dont smoke, healthy diet, excersice,

testicular cancer

• risk factor - abnormal testicles, age, race, family history, tall men, infertility, smoking

• areas - testicles

• ways to reduce - safe sex, dont smoke, regular gp checks

effects of smoking on the lungs

• tar causes emphysema

• chronic obstructive pulmonary disorder (COPD)

• it is also a carcinogen

what is the link between lung cancer and smoking

Tobacco smoke contains over 60–70 known carcinogens that damage DNA in lung cells, preventing repair and triggering cancer, with risk increasing with the amount and duration of smoking.

cigarettes contain:

nicotine - addictive stimulant drug. Raise the heart rate and bp and damages blood vessels which increases chance of clots and coronary heart disease. It can cross the placenta into the foetus.

tar - black sticky substance which sticks to lungs and increases chance of cancer. It damages cilia and alveoli, leading to COPD and emphysema.

carbon monoxide - poisonous gas which combines with heamoglobin in red blood cells, so oxygen cannot. This means there is less oxygen for respiration so a person would be breathless and weak. It can cross the placenta and cause problems with the developing foetus - it will be small and under developed.

how does smoking lead to lung disease

Smoking causes lung disease by introducing thousands of toxic chemicals that inflame airways, paralyze and destroy cilia (tiny hairs that clear mucus), damage alveoli (air sacs for gas exchange), and directly damage DNA, leading to chronic inflammation, infections (like pneumonia), COPD (chronic obstructive pulmonary disease), and lung cancer, as lung tissue doesn't regenerate, making the damage cumulative and irreversible. 

emphysema

normal - large surface area fro maximum diffusion and they expand and recoil to get all the extra air out

emphysema - smaller surface area and dosent recoil as much which can cause persistent cough with mucus, wheezing, chest tightness, and fatigue.

effect of smoking on the heart

• nicotine narrows blood vessels and makes the heart beat faster (addictive stimualnt)

• makes coronary heart disease more likley

effects of smoking on pregnancys

• during the pregnancy the mother is supplying blood to her body and her foetus

• if the mothers blood is carrying carbon monoxide, the baby may not be able to get enough oxygen to grow properly

nhs anti smoking adverts

anti smoking adverts were released by the government and were put in place to reduce strain on nhs and doctors

calories

a unit of energy

excess calories are stored in the body as fat

however, regularly consuming too many calories can lead to a person being overweight

obesity

• health problems associated with obesity are type 2 diabetes, high bp and heart disease

how to describe causal mechanisms for the link between exercise and health.

Describing the causal mechanisms linking exercise to health involves outlining how physical activity triggers specific biological, cellular, and molecular adaptations that improve physiological function and prevent disease. These mechanisms are often categorized by system—cardiovascular, metabolic, immune, and neuronal—and are driven by factors like mechanical stress, hormonal responses, and cellular signaling. 

type 2 diabetes

• your pancreas makes insulin which helps your body produce glucose

• type 2 diabetes is when your body either dosent make enough insulin or your cells stop responding to it.

suggest measures to prevent a further rise in the number of people with type 2 diabetes.

improved diet, increased physical activity, and sustained weight loss

build up of glucose

can cause:

• circulation problems

• kidney faliure

• eyesight probelms

• and can eventually lead to death

what is a casual link

The correlation between a factor and an outcome could be a coincidence, or it could be caused by a completely different factor.

For example, as ice cream sales increase, sales of meat for barbecues also increase. However, buying ice cream does not cause people to buy barbecue meat. This is influenced by the temperature and weather.

To show a causal link, scientists must find evidence that scientifically explains the connection.

If there is no scientific explanation then there is only a correlation. It cannot be shown that the factor causes the outcome.

alchohol

• a social drug in many parts of the world

• it is poisonous but the liver can normally remove it before permanent damage or death results

• alcohol is a depressant so it makes reactions slower. It can make people feel relaxed, cheerful and reduces inhibitons

• a large amount can lead to lack of self control and poor judgement. If the dose is too high it can cause unconciousness, coma and death.

brain damage from alcohol

long term alcohol use can male the brain soft and pulpy

it damages brain structures so it cannot function properly

liver damage from alchohol

liver cells are replaced with scar tissue causing cirrhosis of the liver

alcohol is a carcingen linked to developing liver cancer.

drinking during pregancy

• alcohol passes to the baby through the placenta

• development is badly affected by drinking alcohol as the developing liver cant cope with alcohol

• the baby many have facial deformities, problems with teeth, jaw or hearing, kidney, liver and heart problems.

long term effects of drinking alchohol

liver disease (cirrhosis), cardiovascular problems (high blood pressure, stroke), various cancers (mouth, breast, bowel), and brain damage (dementia, cognitive decline)

short term effects of alcohol

relaxation and lowered inhibitions to severely impaired judgment, motor control, and coordination, occurring shortly after consumption.

High intake causes slurred speech, memory gaps ("blackouts"), vomiting, and potential alcohol poisoning, while significantly increasing the risk of accidents, injuries, and risky behavior.