extra credit

Enumerated Powers

Powers explicitly listed in the Constitution and granted to the federal government (mainly in Article I, Section 8).

Implied Powers

Powers not specifically stated in the Constitution but inferred from the Necessary and Proper Clause to carry out enumerated powers.

Reserved Powers

Powers not given to the federal government and therefore reserved to the states.

Concurrent Powers

Powers shared by both federal and state governments, such as taxing and law enforcement.

10th Amendment

Constitutional amendment stating that powers not delegated to the federal government are reserved to the states or the people.

Federalism

A system of government in which power is divided between a national government and state governments.

McCulloch v. Maryland

Maryland tried to tax the national bank and it was deemed unconstitutional Supreme Court case that upheld implied powers and established federal supremacy over states.

16th Amendment

Amendment allowing the federal government to collect an income tax.

17th Amendment

Amendment establishing the direct election of U.S. Senators by voters.

New Deal

A series of federal programs under FDR that expanded federal power to address the Great Depression.

New Federalism

A political approach that returns power to the states, often through block grants.

Dual Federalism

A system where federal and state governments operate separately in their own spheres (“layer cake federalism”).

Cooperative Federalism

A system where federal and state governments work together on policy (“marble cake federalism”).

Polls

Surveys used to measure public opinion on political issues or candidates.

Public Opinion Polls

Scientific surveys that estimate the views of a population by questioning a sample.

Sample

A subset of a population selected to represent the whole.

Random Sample

A sample where every individual has an equal chance of being selected.

Margin of Error

The range showing how much poll results may differ from the actual population opinion.

Political Ideology

A set of beliefs about government’s role, policies, and values (e.g., liberal, conservative).

Political Socialization

The process by which individuals form political beliefs, influenced by family, school, media, and peers.

Party Realignment

A major shift in party coalitions that changes party dominance over time.

Critical Election

An election that produces a lasting change in political party control and voter alignment.

Electoral College

The system used to formally elect the U.S. president, where states cast electoral votes.

Closed Primary

An election in which only registered party members may vote in that party’s primary.

Open Primary

A primary election in which voters may choose either party’s ballot, regardless of party registration.

Recall

A process allowing voters to remove an elected official before their term ends.

Incumbency Advantage

The advantage current officeholders have due to name recognition, fundraising, and experience.

BCRA (McCain-Feingold Act)

A law regulating campaign finance by limiting soft money and electioneering communications.

Citizens United v. FEC

Supreme Court case ruling that independent political spending is protected speech, increasing the role of Super PACs.

Retrospective Judgment

Voting based on a candidate’s past performance.

Prospective Judgment

Voting based on a candidate’s promises or future plans.

Mass Media

Forms of communication that reach large audiences, such as TV, radio, and the internet.

News Media

Media outlets that report current events and political information.

Print Media

Physical news sources such as newspapers and magazines.

Muckraking

Investigative journalism that exposes corruption or social problems.

Press Release

An official statement sent to media outlets to announce news or shape coverage.

Press Briefing

A regular, usually informal meeting where officials answer reporters’ questions.

Press Conference

A formal event where officials address and take questions from the media.

Agenda Setting

The media’s ability to influence what issues people think are important.

Framing

The way media presents an issue, shaping how audiences interpret it.

Narrowcasting

Targeting media content to specific audiences rather than the general public.

Prior Restraint

Government action that prevents publication before it occurs, generally unconstitutional.

Lobbyist

An individual who attempts to influence legislation or policy on behalf of a group.

Free-Rider Problem

When people benefit from a group’s efforts without contributing, reducing participation.

Agenda

The list of issues that government officials and policymakers focus on.

Fiscal Policy

Government use of taxing and spending to influence the economy.

Monetary Policy

Control of the money supply and interest rates, managed by the Federal Reserve.

Medicare

A federal health insurance program for people 65 and older and some disabled individuals.

Medicaid

A state-run, federally funded health insurance program for low-income individuals.

Affordable Care Act (ACA

A federal law aimed at expanding health insurance coverage and reducing healthcare costs.