IB Psychology HL

Combination of Syndey Wong's quizlet

Outline principles that define the Biological Level of Analysis.

- All behaviour has a physiological basis;

- Behaviour can be inherited;

- Behaviour may be influenced by evolutionary processes;

- Animal studies provide insight into human behaviour.

"All behaviour has a physiological basis."

Biological researchers take a reductionist approach to the study of behaviour - focusing in smallest parts e.g. genes, neurotransmitters, localised part of the brain etc.

Supporting research: "All behaviour has a physiological basis"

Dr. John Money (1974) reassigned David Reimer, born an inter-sexed boy, to be raised a a girl. However, it illustrated that regardless of external socialisation, his chromosomes and hormones resulted in David's masculine behaviours. This case raised a number of ethical issues.

"Behaviour can be inherited."

Numerous studies have shown a link between genes and behaviour. Two key ways of researching this link are through correlational (twin and adoption studies) and linkage studies.

Supporting evidence 1: "Behaviour can be inherited."

Minnesota Twin Study (Bouchard et al., 1990) was a longitudinal study which found similarities between the identical twins. Conclusions were made that these results were due to genes, not environment. They forgot to realise that separated twins doesn't necessarily mean different environment - vice versa - un-separated MZ twins doesn't necessarily mean same environment.

Supporting evidence 2: "Behaviour can be inherited."

Grove et al. (1990) studied 32 sets of MZ twins who were separated and raised apart shortly after birth. Statistically significant heritabilities were obtained for anti-social behaviour in both childhood (0.41) and adulthood (0.28). They forgot to realise that separated twins doesn't necessarily mean different environment.

Supporting evidence 3: "Behaviour can be inherited."

Brunner's (1993) linkage study found the same genetic mutation in 28 members of a Dutch family all with a history of anti-social behaviour. Throughout the 4 years, he analysed the X chromosomes of all men and found a mutation in a gene responsible for aggressive behaviour.

"Behaviour may be influenced by evolutionary processes."

Evolutionary processes include Darwin's theory of natural selection - the process by which species adapt to their environment. The certain characteristics passed on through generations are ones for greater survival or reproductive rate.

Supporting evidence: "Behaviour may be influenced by evolutionary processes."

David Buss (1992) carried out a "self-report" upon sexual selection (of choosing the right mate). Male and female participants were asked to imagine a romantic relationship where their partner is either having sex with someone else or falling in love with someone else. Females were more upset with the emotional infidelity, in contrast to males being more upset upon sexual infidelity.

"Animal studies provide insight into human behaviour."

Experiments on animals have made an important contribution to advances in medicine and psychology that have brought major improvements in the health and well being of humans and animals.Nevertheless, huge ethical issues are raised about the use and treatment of animals in research.

Supporting evidence: "Animal studies provide insight into human behaviour."

- Martinez & Kesner (1991) studied the role of acetycholine on memory (rats).

- Rosenzweig & Bennett (1972) studied the effects of deprivation on brain development (rats).

- Matsuzawa (2007) studied spatial memory (chimpanzees).

- Zola-Morgan et al. (2000) studied the hippocampal damage and memory (monkeys).

- Harlow (1962) studied love in infant monkeys.

Discuss how and why particular research methods are used at the Biological Level of Analysis. (1 of 2)

- Lab experiments with animals: we share an earlier common ancestry and physiology with many species. There are significant controversy about the use of animals, additionally the results cannot always be generalised to humans accurately.

Discuss how and why particular research methods are used at the Biological Level of Analysis. (2 of 2)

- Correlation studies / Brain scans: this method involves investigating a relationship between two variables. Most use PET and MRI scans to find a relationship between brain activity and a specific behaviour. Moreover, genetic influence studies rely heavily on correlational methods of Twin studies e.g. Grove's (1990) study into aggression found a concordance rate of 0.41 amongst child identical twins. However, it is not possible to show causality.

Discussing ethical considerations related to research studies at the Biological Level of Analysis.

[C]an [D]o [C]an't [D]o [W]ith [P]articipants: Consent, Deception, Confidentiality, Debriefing, Withdrawal, Protection.

Consent

Participants must be informed about the nature of the study and agree to participate - which can be very difficult to achieve without jeopardising the real objective of the study.

Evidence: Consent

- Milgram (1963): Participants had volunteered to take part in an experiment on learning, not obedience.

- Bandura (1963): Children not able to give own consent.

Deception

Information must not be withheld from participants, nor should they be mislead. Studies involving deception are unethical (but something necessary).

Evidence: Deception

- Milgram (1963): Participants were lead to believe they were giving real electric shocks.

- Schacter & Singer: Participants believe they were taking a vitamin injection.

Confidentiality

Participants have the right to confidentiality.

Evidence: Confidentiality

- Pseudonym was used in the case of H.M. until after his death (Henry Molaison) unlike Clive Wearing.

Debriefing

Following an investigation, participants should be fully informed about the nature and purpose of the research. It can help with cases of deception (purposely used to avoid unrealistic results from telling the participant what to expect).

Evidence: Debriefing

- Milgram (1963) debriefed his participants.

Right to withdraw

Participants should have the right to withdraw at any time, regardless of whether to not they were paid for their participation.

Evidence: Withdrawal

- Milgram (1963) pushed the line with trying to coerce participants to continue the shocks.

- Zimbardo (Stanford Prison Experiment) made it hard to prisoners to leave.

Protection

Researchers have responsibility for protecting participants from physical or mental harm, including undue stress. It is not always guaranteed - if they do get harm, the study may be fully criticised.

Evidence: Protection

- Milgram: induced stress and anxiety.

- Bandura: encouraging agression in young children.

- Schacter & Singer: possible harm from injection and stress (of the 'angry' situation).

Explain one study related to localisation of function.

Localisation of function refers to different parts of the brain carrying out different functions (e.g. vision, language, memory). A damage to a specific part of the brain can lead to loss in its corresponding function.

Broca (1861): Cast study of 'Tan'

Paul Broca, a French neurosurgeon, examined the brain of a recently deceased patient who had an unusual language disorder - who understood spoken language but could not express any speech except the syllable "tan" (later used as his name). Broca found a sizable lesion in the left frontal lobe, concluding that this area was associated with language. Similar results were found with 8 other patients, upon the same region, which is later known as Broca's area.

Evaluation of Broca (1861).

This case study from the 19th century is not conclusive proof of a model.The Gerschwind model (1955) proposed a more modular approach accounting for hearing, speaking, reading and operating in more complex process than the earlier model.

Explain, using examples, the effects of neurotransmission on behaviour.

- Memory

- Imbalances and mental illness (schizophrenia)

What is a neurotransmitter?

A neurotransmitter is a chemical messenger that carries, boosts and modulates signals between neurons and other cells in the body. It is estimated that there are between 10 and 100 billion neurons in the nervous system. The method by which these messages are sent is called neurotransmission.

Neurotransmission in Memory

Acetylcholine (neurotransmitter) plays a critical synaptic role in the initial formation of memory. Short-term memory is a result from a transient change in neurotransmitter levels at synapses.

Martinez & Kesner (1999): Procedure

Trained rats were to run through a maze where they received food at the end. They were separated into three groups:

1. Rats injected with a chemical which blocked acetylcholine receptor sites (decreasing acetylcholine);

2. Rats injected with an enzyme which breaks down and helps the res-synthesis of acetylcholine;

3. Rats not given any injections (control group).

Martinez & Kesner (1999): Results

1. Rats were slower at finding food, and made more error than 2 and 3;

2. Rats found food even more quickly than the control group.

Martinez & Kesner (1999): Evaluation

This was a well-designed experiment, allowing researchers to establish a cause-and-effect relationship between high levels of acetylcholine and memory. The use of animals raise questions about generalisability to humans.

Neurotransmission in mental illness (Schizophrenia)

The main causes of mental illnesses is the imbalances of neurotransmitters and that these conditions can be improved with medication which corrects these imbalances.

What is schizophrenia?

Schizophrenia is an extremely complex mnetal disorder affecting adolescenes or young adults. People with schizophrenia suffer from problems with their thought processes. These lead to hallucinations, delusions, disordered thinking, and unusual speech or behaviour.

The Dopamine hypothesis

According to this hypothesis, schizophrenia is associated with increased activity at dopamine receptor sites. Amphetamines and cocaine, which trigger the release of dopamine, have been found to exacerbate the psychotic symptoms of schizophrenia. Drugs which block dopamine function, such as chlorpromazine, reduces psychotic symptoms.

The Dopamine hypothesis: Evaluation (1 of 2)

The results are correlated, illustrating the relationship between schizophrenia and neurotransmitters in the brain. Yet, it does not prove cause and effect. Chlorpromazine only reduces the positive symptoms of schizophrenia such as hallucinations and delusions. Therefore excessive dopamine can at best only explain some types of schizophrenia.

The Dopamine hypothesis: Evaluation (2 of 2)

Drugs have their effect on the brain almost immediately, but they take weeks to affect the behaviour of the patients. The dopamine hypothesis is unable to explain this delay.

Explain functions of two hormones on behaviour, using one or more examples.

The endocrine system is made up of glands that produce and secret hormones. Hormones are chemical messengers created by the body. They transfer information from one set of cells to another to coordinate the functions of different parts of body.

Oxytocin

Oxytocin, also known as the 'love hormone', is not only a hormone that circulates in the bloodstream, it is also a neurotransmitter that travels along nerve cells in the brain and elsewhere. It has been found to be beneficial for reducing anxiety and stress, producing feelings or well-being, empathy, bonding, and sexual arousal.

Oxytocin: Example 1

Ditzen (2009) conducted a study at the university of Zurich upon adult couples - one group receiving oxytocin, the other receiving a placebo. Ditzen analysed the effects of the hormone given to couples, and found that it reduced levels of the stress hormone cortisol and increased positive communication behaviour, compared to the placebo.

Oxytocin: Example 2

Jacob et al. (2007) found that oxytocin decreased repetitive behaviours and improve interpretation of emotions in autistic individuals. Intranasal administration of oxytocin was found to increase emotion recognition in children as young as 12 who are diagnosed with autism (Wermter, 2009).

Adrenaline

Adrenaline (a.k.a epinephrine) is a hormone secreted by the adrenal gland. It helps the body adjust to sudden stress - the flight or fight response. It speeds up conversion of glycogen into glucose, providing energy to the muscles. Additionally, it increases strength and rate of heartbeat, raising the blood pressure.

Schacter & Singer (1962): Procedure

Injected 3 groups with adrenaline and 1 group with a placebo (claiming they were vitamin shots) and placed them in one of the two situations - either happy or angry.

1. Some were given information about the effects of the shot on their behaviour

2. Some were given WRONG information

3. Some weren't given any information

Schacter & Singer (1962): Results

1. Given info - reported lower levels of emotions as they knew why they felt that way

2. Mislead info - reported higher level of emotions as they felt confused of their physical arousal

3. No info - reported their feelings depending on the situation (i.e. happiness or anger)

Schacter & Singer (1962): Conclusion

Emotions are triggered by physical arousal, thereby is an interaction of both cognitive and hormonal factors.

Ethical issues: Deception, Protection.

Discuss two effects of the environment on physiological processes.

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Examine one interaction between cognition and physiology in terms of behaviour. Evaluate two relevant studies.

- Schacter & Singer (1962): emotions and physiological arousal

- Speisman (1964): emotional reaction and appraisal

Cognition and physiology 1: Schacter & Singer (1962)

Schacter & Singer (1962) forms the two-factor theory, stating the interaction between physiological arousal and emotion: an event occurs; causes physiological arousal; reason for this identified; emotion labelled.

Cognition and physiology 1: Schacter & Singer (1962) EVALUATION

- sample was all males, thereby unrepresentative;

- raises concerns with deception, since they all thought they were receiving vitamin shots;

- participants may be harm due to injection as not everyone react to the substances the same way;

- it may be distressing to induce anger.

Lazarus (1990)

He argued that an emotion-provoking stimulus triggers a cognitive appraisal:

- Primary appraisal (relevance) in which we consider how the situation affects our personal well-being;

- Secondary appraisal (options) whereby we consider how might we cope with the situation;

- Reappraisal (ability to handle with emotion) refers to whether the emotion is changeable.

Cognition and physiology 2: Speisman (1964)

Similarly to Lazarus, he wanted to see if people's emotional reactions could be manipulated (according to appraisal). An unpleasant surgery video is shown to college students, in three conditions: with no sound, with "trauma" narration, and with "denial" narration.

- trauma group: illustrated more stress than the control group (no sound);

- denial group: illustrated less s tress than the control group.

This supports the theory that it is how we appraise a situation that determines our level of emotional research.

Cognition and physiology 2: Speisman (1964) EVALUATION

- supports Lazarus' theory;

- well-controlled lab experiment;

- lack ecological validity;

- unethical to expose disturbing video, creating high levels of discomfort.

Discuss the use of brain imaging technologies in investigation the relationship between biological factors and behaviour.

In recent decades, the invention of new brain-imaging devices has led to spectacular advances in sciences ability to look into the brain.

CAT scans

Computerized axial tomography allows detailed anatomic images of the brain for diagnostic and research purposes. Multiple X-rays are shot from many angles, and the computer combines the readings to create a vivid image of a horizontal slice of the brain.

- it is the least expensive

- widely used in research

PET scans

PET scans can examine brain function, mapping actual activity in the brain over time. In PET scans, radioactively tagged chemicals are introduced into the brain, providing a colour-coded map indicating which areas of the brain become active when participants do a number of activities.

- Raine et al. (1997) used PET scans in identifying reduced neural activity in certain parts of the brains of people charged with murder but pleading not guilty for reasons of insanity.

MRI scans

Magnetic Resonance Imaging uses magnetic fields, radio waves and computerised enhancement to map out brain structure. MRI scans provide better images of brain structure than CAT scans.

fMRI scans

Functional MRI works by detecting the changes in blood oxygenation and flow that occur in response to neural activity - when a brain area is more active it consumes more oxygen and to meet this increased demand blood flow increase to the active area.

- measurement of blood flow is called "blood-oxygen-level-dependent (BOLD) signal"

- differs from MRI as patients are asked to do specific activities during the scan

fMRI scans: Advantages

- it can record brain signals without risks of radiation (such as CAT or PET scans);

- it has high spatial resolution;

- it can record signals from ll regions of the brain, unlike EEG/MEG which are biased towards the cortical surface;

- localising brain activity during a task is easier with fMRI and more precise than PET scans.

fMRI scans: Disadvantages

- image must be carefully interpreted since correlation does not imply causality;

- it can produce false positives;

- it collects data in voxels - a combination of volume and pixels;

- it measures the BOLD signal;

- most fMRI studies use "univariate" processing;

- results from fMRI scans may be misleading.

Berns et al. (2005): Procedure

Berns et al. (2005) used fMRI to measure what happens inside the brain when people iether conform to a group's judgement, or go against it. He was trying to distinguish two competing hypotheses of conformity: (1) that people perceive accurately but then report consistently with the group for social reward, or (2) that people actually perceive differently based on what the rest of the group perceives.

Berns et al. (2005): Results

Results show that when people conform to a group's wrong judgement, changes in brain activity were noted in the visual and perceptual parts of the brain i.e. change in perception. The scans showed that the part of the brain that is normally activated during conscious decision-making was not activated. This means that our perceptions can be influenced and distorted!

Ethical issues of brain-imaging.

- fMRI scans may invade one's privacy;

- neuro-marketing is used for businesses to convince people that the brains are different when using different products;

- abnormal neuronal activity in certain parts of the brain that are shown may question whether an individual will commit a crime and whether they are responsible for it.

With reference to relevant research studies, to what extent does genetic inheritance influence behaviour?

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Examine one evolutionary explanation of behaviour.

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Discuss ethical considerations in research into genetic influences.

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What are the key differences between quantitative and qualitative data?

Quantitative data are data such as averages and numbers, which can be recorded, qualitative data are data gained from things such as emotions, or perspective, which cannot be recorded again simply.

What would be the advantage of gathering qualitative data for a study instead of quantitative data? Give an example to illustrate your argument.

Qualitative data has more detail that goes beyond numbers and statistics. An example is when a person is asking people about their opinions on what is the best sport. From qualitative research you asked the individual directly about what they think, while in a quantitative research you can only get statistics from numbers.

What would be the advantage of gathering quantitative data for a study instead of qualitative data? Give an example to illustrate your argument.

It is easier and requires less amount of time. An example is by looking at surveys and determining the averages in data given.

To what extent can one generalize from qualitative studies? (Be sure to use the terminology that is discussed in this workbook with regard to Guba & Lincoln's vocabulary for discussing qualitative research studies).

1)Representational Generalization- findings can be applied to populations outside the study.

2) Inferential Generalization: findings can be applied to settings outside the study setting. Also referred to as "transferability". (ex. one homeless program for research can be applied to other homeless programs.)

3) Theoretical Generalization-concepts from the study can be used to further develop the theory.

In general, what are the ethical considerations that must be made when carrying out qualitative research? Is this in any way different from the ethical considerations that must be followed when carrying out experimental research?

Same: informed consent, right of withdrawl, confidentiality, justification of use of deception,debriefing, consider implications and consequences

Special: may not need consent (because the group does not know they are being studied), under 16 consent from parents must be issued, participants must know it is voluntary, protect participants against harm, identity and confidentiality kept a secret

What are two participant effects? How may they affect the findings of a qualitative research study?

Participant expectations: participants ideas of the research and the researcher which can effect the trustworthiness of the data. (ex: participant acts in a certain way to try to please researcher)

Researcher bias: researcher not paying enough attention to participants so researchers own beliefs determine research process.

What is researcher bias? How can a researcher try to minimize its effect on research?

Researcher bias is when the researcher takes the data and bases it on their own beliefs. To minimize the effect is by having a controlled procedure and come up with possibilities for hypotheses that are likely to come up.

What does it mean if we say that a study lacks "credibility?" Why is this important in qualitative research?

Credibility in qualitative research is equivalent to internal validity in quantitative research. It is used to judge the quality of the research.

For a study to be credible it must present a true picture of the phenomenon under investigation and it should be possible to check how the results of the study were obtained. Credibility check is one of the most important factors in establishing trustworthiness in qualitative research.

Define triangulation, giving two examples of how it works.

Triangulation is based on the assumption that by comparing data obtained by different methods or different researchers in the same setting it is possible to overcome potential biases from using a single method or a single researcher. The purpose is to establish credibility/ trustworthiness.

Examples of triangulation are: method triangulation, data triangulation, researcher triangulation, and theory triangulation.

Method comparison: use of different methods in the same study. Effect is that bias is reduced and credibility increased. Takes advantage of strengths of the different methods and compensates for their methodological limitations.

Data triangulation: comparison of data from multiple sources. Effect is that bias is reduced and credibility increased. It provides additional sources to describe the phenomenon under investigation.

Why is triangulation important in qualitative research? How does it affect the credibility of the study?

Triangulation is used to increase the credibility of the conclusions in a qualitative study. Researchers can use different procedures or sources in the study to ensure that the conclusion gives a true picture of the phenomenon under investigation.

Explain what is meant by reflexivity - and why it is an important part of qualitative research.

Reflexivity: a strategy used by qualitative researchers to explain how a researcher's subjectivity contributes to the findings. This approach acknowledges that a researcher may be biased towards the findings because he or she perceives and interprets through his or her own individual lens (subjectivity).

Reflexivity is linked to the validation of qualitative research, for example credibility and trustworthiness, and is of major importance in qualitative research studies.

In order to achieve credibility a qualitative research report should include some information about the researcher as well as information about the researcher's relation to the topic or the people under investigation.

The researcher demonstrates self-awareness and critical self-reflection by explaining how his or her potential biases could have affected the researcher process and conclusions.

Explain what is meant by "purposive sampling." Why is this often used in qualitative research studies?

In purposive sampling the characteristics of individuals are used as the basis of selection in order to reflect the diversity of the sample population.

Recruitment of participants can continue throughout the research project until the researchers find that they have enough data to generate a theory.

This is why it is often used in qualitative research, as it allows the research to collect enough information to help generate a theory, without having to repeat the entire research project.

In order to achieve a purposive sample, researchers often use self-selected samples. What are one strength and one limitation of this type of sampling?

Strengths:

• Participants represent the research topic because they are selected specifically based on salient characteristics relevant to the research.

• It is relatively easy to select a sample. The sample may be supplemented with more participants during the research.

Limitations:

• Sampling may be biased. If the sampling process is based on objective selection criteria, documented and explained then the bias is limited.

• It is very difficult to generalise from a small purposive sample.

Two other types of sampling used are snowball samples and quota samples. Explain why a psychologist may choose to use these samples, and explain one disadvantage of each.

Snowball Sampling:

• A type of purposive sampling.

• Participants who are already in the study can help the research recruit more participants.

• May be used when it is difficult to recruit participants (e.g. because the research is socially sensitive, involving people such as drug addicts or the homeless).

• Disadvantage: it is likely to be biased because participants know each other and may have same attitudes or experiences.

Convenience Sampling:

• Participants chosen on availability.

• People at hand are simply asked if they are willing to participate in the research.

• Disadvantage: it is likely to be biased and since the participants are not recruited based on any population so it is very difficult to generalise.

What is meant by a "semi-structured interview?" Why would a researcher use this method? What would be the strengths and limitations of this interviewing technique?

Characteristics of semi-structured interviews:

• There is an interview guide giving themes to explore (a checklist of themes to cover to ensure standardization of interviews).

• Open and closed-ended questions can be used.

• These interviews are informal and conversational in nature.

• They are mostly face-to-face interviews.

Strengths:

• Themes to explore are decided beforehand and noted in the interview guide.

• The researcher can ask the interviewee to elaborate on answers and get in-depth knowledge.

• It is useful in socially sensitive issues because themes can be fully explored.

Limitations:

• There is only limited space to explore themes that have not been planned beforehand.

• The one-on-one situation can appear somewhat artificial and may raise issues of ecological validity.

• Data analysis is very time consuming.

What is meant by a "focus group?" Why would a researcher use this method? What would be the strengths and limitations of this interviewing technique?

Characteristics of a focus group interview:

• A group of around 6-10 people (the focus group) are interviewed at the same time.

• A facilitator introduces the participants to each other, asks questions and leads group interactions.

• Participants are supposed to interact with each other as they would in real life. They can use their own language and even people who are illiterate can participate.

• Participants discuss and respond to each other's statements. This gives the special dynamic to the interview and generates rich data.

Strengths:

• It is a quick way to collect data from several participants at the same time.

• It provides a natural setting for interactions between participants and the conversational approach may result in better ecological validity than the semi-structured interview.

• It may be useful in socially sensitive issues because people may be more likely to reveal how they think and why they experience what they do.

Limitations:

• It may raise ethical issues when participants are not free, for example in institutions like prisons or nursing homes.

• The presence of other participants may result in group dynamics such as conformity. This could result in data that do not really represent the individual participant's beliefs.

• If the topic is particularly sensitive participants may not want to disclose private information.

What is meant by a "narrative interview?" Why would a researcher use this method? What would be the strengths and limitations of this interviewing technique?

Characteristics of the narrative interview:

• A narrative is a mix of facts and interpretations of experiences that help the individual to create meaning and identity.

• A narrative is often constructed like a real story with an opening, a middle and an ending. It can be based on a life story or a story of a particular situation.

• Interviewer stimulates narratives by asking questions such as: "Could you tell me more about the time when you were told you would never be able to have children?"

• The interviewer does not interrupt during the narrative interview but may show interest through eye contact or other physical signs of attention or invite for further narrating by asking questions such as: "And then what happened?"

Strengths:

• It is a useful way to gain an in-depth understanding of how people construct meaning in their lives.

• It can be used with all people because they can use their own language and can talk freely without being interrupted.

• It may be useful in exploring socially sensitive issues because it gives insight into how people think and why they experience what they do.

Limitations:

• It is time consuming to transcribe and analyse the huge amount of data from narrative interviews.

• The narrative may go in all directions because it is the participant who decides what to tell. Not all data can be used in the research.

• Ethical issues involved in having people tell about traumatic experiences - especially if they experience a major life crisis.

What are three things that a researcher should do when setting up or planning to conduct an interview?

• The data collection method should be decided on.

• An interview guide should be established.

• The right interviewer should be chosen and trained (consider gender, ethnicity, language and age).

• The sample selection criteria should be decided.

• The sampling method should be decided.

• The data recording method should be decided and prepared.

• The method of transcription of the data should be decided (verbatim or post-modern (including features such as pauses, laughter, etc.))

• Ethical considerations should be taken into account.

• Reflexivity should be considered- how would it affect the research project and how can this be addressed?

What are three things that a researcher should remember when carrying out an interview?

• Establishing rapport between interviewer and participant(s): a trusting and relationship.

• Data recording should be operating properly (from the start so as not to disrupt the research project).

• The interviewer should perform active and neutral listening.

• Maintain professionality- remember that the participant should be able to withdraw at any point of time if they wish.

What are some of the difficulties of carrying out a one-on-one interview? A group interview?

One-on-one Interview:

• Both data collection and analysis are very time consuming.

• The one-on-one situation can appear somewhat artificial and may raise issues of ecological validity.

Group Interview:

• The presence of other participants may result in group dynamics such as conformity.

• If the topic is particularly sensitive participants may not want to disclose private information.

What ethical considerations must be made when carrying out an interview?

• Whether the research is socially sensitive and if it involves emotional stress.

• How informed consent and briefing will be addressed.

• Maintaining a professional approach and allowing the participants to withdraw themselves from the research projects at any point.

• Maintaining confidentiality and anonymity of the participants.

What is the difference between traditional and postmodern transcription methods?

Traditional methods focus on using the recorded interview and later transcribe the interview word for word, while post-modern methods involves the interviewer to do multi-tasking, asking questions and recording the answers even for the body language or non verbal communication the individual uses.

Explain how an inductive content analysis would be used to analyze and interpret an interview.

The goal of inductive content analysis is to give credible representation of the social world under investigation.

Inductive Content Analysis Process:

• Identification of initial themes based on first readings of the raw data.

• Organisation of low-level themes into higher-level themes.

• Checking whether interpretations are credible occurs at every step.

• Emergent themes are then structured and a table is made summarising all the low and high-level themes.

• Inferences and conclusions are then formed based on the summary table. At this stage the researcher tries to identify relationships between themes. This is very important part of the process may reveal specific patterns in the themes which may lead to the formation of a theory.

Define back translation. Why would an interviewer use this technique?

Back translation is the process of translating a document already translated into another language back to the original language it was written in. Interviewers use this technique to check the accuracy of the translation that is made.

How could an interviewer increase the credibility of his findings?

The researcher should add insights based on the research and analysis without being biased with personal opinions.

Define participant observation. What is one advantage of this method? One disadvantage?

Participant observation: the researcher participates actively in the participants' life, observes, listens, and produces field notes.

Characteristics of participant observation:

• The researcher becomes part of the target group under investigation.

• The focus of the is on natural behaviour in its natural context.

• The researcher enters the field (the place where the research takes place) and acts as the instrument of data collection. The aim is to obtain a close and intimate familiarity and empathy with the participants through personal involvement with people in their own environment.

Strengths:

• It generates detailed and in-depth information of a topic, which cannot be studied by other methods.

• It is useful in exploring socially sensitive issues because the researcher can take many different aspects of a topic into consideration (holistic approach).

• It is a good method to avoid researcher bias because the aim is to understand social processes from the perspective of participants.

Limitations:

• Data collection and analysis is very time consuming, especially in long-term projects. Often groups are small so it is difficult to generalise findings.

• It is a highly invasive research method: can influence people's lives and environment.

• The researcher may lose objectivity. It is difficult to keep a balance between involvement and detachment. Reflexivity can increase credibility.

Discuss how two different participant effects may overly influence an observation.

The participants' difference in opinion of the research and the researcher may affect the trustworthiness of the observation. There also could be participant bias because they are behaving differently influencing the observation.

What is a naturalistic observation? Explain the strengths and limitations of carrying out a naturalistic observation rather than a controlled observation.

Characteristics of naturalistic observations:

• Data is collected by researchers who observe and record how people (or animals) behave. The aim is to collect information in a natural environment to provide an account of the interactions in a particular social group.

• The researcher often spends a long time in the field in order to become familiar with participants' natural environment. The researcher collects data and writes field notes used for analysis.

• Observations in the field can be complemented with, for example, interview data or quantitative data from questionnaires (triangulation).

Strengths:

• The researcher can observe natural behaviour in a natural environment. Qualitative researchers prefer naturalistic observations because it increases ecological validity.

• It can be combined with controlled laboratory observations and data from other qualitative methods (triangulation to increase credibility).

• Observational data can be cross-checked with other observers to establish credibility.

Limitations:

• Ethical issues involved if the naturalistic observation is covert.

• Analysis of data can be time consuming and costly - especially if the observation is unstructured.

What are the advantages of a non-participant observation?

• It is easier to collect data because the researcher does not interact with participants but only observes.

• The researcher can observe natural behaviour.

• It is a useful way of observing the behaviour of small groups or interactions between individuals.

• Observational data can be cross-checked with other observers to establish credibility.

What is a covert observation? When would this technique most likely be used (strengths)? What are some of the limitations of this technique?

Covert observation: participants do not know they participate in the research.

Strengths:

• It is possible to study groups that cannot be studied otherwise; or when it is vital to avoid reactivity.

• There is limited or no reactivity since participants do not know about the research.

Limitations:

• Participants are not informed about the research and cannot give informed consent.

• It can be dangerous if participants find out about the study.

What is an overt observation? When would this technique most likely be used (strengths)? What are some of the limitations of this technique?

Overt observation: participants know they participate in research.

Strengths:

• Participants can be informed about the topic and give informed consent.

• Data collection can be triangulated with interview data.

Limitations:

• The researcher may lose objectivity and become too involved.

• The researcher's presence is a potential source of bias (reactivity).

Discuss three things that a researcher must do to prepare to carry out an observation.

• Take into account methodological considerations (covert/overt; participants/non-participant observation) and how they could affect results.

• Take into account ethical considerations (informed consent, debriefing, anonymity of the participants, etc.)

• Decide on the sampling method to be used.

• Choose data recording method.